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国际贸易与经济增长和发展关系的实证研究方法及结论

时间:2022-05-29 百科知识 版权反馈
【摘要】:由此,埃默里得出一国出口贸易可以促进GNP增长的结论。对外贸易能够积极促进经济增长的观点得到了一大批实证研究的有力支持。对贸易与经济增长关系在理论认识上的分歧,引发学者们试图从实证的角度去寻找答案。巴拉萨的出口扩展型总量生产函数被广泛用作评估贸易对经济增长促进作用的模型。

第四节 国际贸易与经济增长和发展关系的实证研究方法及结论

一、早期关于对外贸易与经济增长和发展关系的经验研究

有关贸易促进经济增长的实证分析在20世纪60年代以前,主要是收集一些典型国家的有关数据进行简单的比较。从20世纪60年代末开始,以埃默里为代表的经济学家开始采用计量经济学的方法展开对贸易促进经济增长课题的研究,这些实证研究主要集中于对出口导向经济增长假设(export-led economic growth,ELG)的检验,使用的实证研究方法多是普通最小二乘法、简单回归分析法。

埃默里(R. F. Emery,1967)(155)首先收集了50个国家的1953-1963年的数据,建立了最简单的出口与GNP线性关系的模型,经过普通最小二乘法回归分析,结果表明,各国出口贸易额与GNP呈正相关关系,而贸易差额与GNP的关系则不显著。由此,埃默里得出一国出口贸易可以促进GNP增长的结论。

麦哲尔(A. Maizels,1968)采用了埃默里的基本模型,但是去掉了贸易差额这一与GNP关系不显著的变量,分别对9个国家1950-1962年的时间序列数据进行了回归,回归结果与埃默里的结论大致相同。

二、20世纪70年代以来的出口贸易与经济增长和发展关系的经验研究

进入20世纪70年代,原来采用进口替代战略的大多数发展中国家在进一步发展的过程中纷纷遇到阻力,许多国家转向出口替代战略或出口导向型战略。在这一过程中,发展中国家的经济政策转型引起了经济学家对贸易在经济增长中所发挥的作用的极大兴趣。作为占主导地位的观点,自由贸易理论认为,发展对外贸易是增加国民财富、改善资源配置从而促进经济增长的重要途径。对外贸易能够积极促进经济增长的观点得到了一大批实证研究的有力支持。众多经济学家根据相关的理论纷纷建立了各自的贸易促进增长的数学模型,并应用这些模型分别对各个时期、多个国家的横截面数据或时间序列数据进行了大量的回归分析,得出了一些比较客观的结论,其中颇具代表性的有巴拉萨(Balassa,1978)、泰勒(Tyler,1981)、费德(Feder,1982)、世界银行(World Bank,1993)等。学者们针对不同国家和地区,运用不同的模型与分析方法进行了大量研究,例如克鲁格(1978)、Barro和Sala IMartin(1995)、Young(1991)、Van和Wan (1997)、World Bank(1998,2000)、Johes和Manuelli(1990)、Fisher(1995)等。尽管多数文献表明出口和经济增长具有高度相关性,但是分歧依然存在。

对贸易与经济增长关系在理论认识上的分歧,引发学者们试图从实证的角度去寻找答案。近年来,在这方面最有影响力的一篇论文来自哈佛大学的杰弗里·萨赫和安德鲁·华纳,国际货币基金组织、世界银行、OECD及其他一些机构经常引用这篇论文来支持他们关于让发展中国家开放其经济的建议。杰弗里·萨赫和安德鲁·华纳的研究发现,实行开放经济的发展中国家在20世纪70-80年代每年的经济增长率达到了4.5%,而实行封闭经济的发展中国家每年只能达到0.7%;同时,研究发现,实行开放经济的发达国家的年经济增长率可达2.3%,而封闭经济的发达国家只有0.7%。世界银行对包括东亚地区在内的41个发展中国家和地区的调查结果也支持这一观点。他们的调查表明,从GDP的年平均增长率来看,实行强烈外向型的国家,1963-1973年为9.5%,1973-1985年为7.7%,而实行强烈内向型的国家分别为4.1%和2.5%。各种统计分析表明,发展中国家的出口增长和总体GDP增长明显密切相关。

学者们针对不同国家和地区,运用不同的模型与分析方法进行了大量研究,本文以关于出口贸易与经济增长关系的实证研究为例,列举学者们在这一时期所使用的有代表性的实证研究方法。

(一)实证研究方法

1.相关分析

米开里1977年首次采用了斯闭门范围相关方法(Spearman rank correlation)来分析贸易对经济增长的影响,选取了41个发展中国家1956-1967年有关数据的平均值,通过相关分析,得出的结论是:出口速度快的国家,经济增长速度也快。

2.出口扩展型总量生产函数

巴拉萨(Balassa,1978)(156)将传统的生产函数扩展为适用于开放经济条件下的出口扩展型总量生产函数,使用线性回归模型,分别选取1960-1966年以及1967-1973年两个时期10个国家的横截面数据进行实证分析,得出了出口促进经济增长的基本结论。巴拉萨的出口扩展型总量生产函数被广泛用作评估贸易对经济增长促进作用的模型。

泰勒(Tyler,1981)(157)在研究了出口、劳动和资本对总产出的作用的同时,进一步研究了制造业出口的作用。在建立出口扩展型总量生产函数时,直接在指数形式的道格拉斯生产函数上加入了出口变量,使用对数形式的线性回归模型,与巴拉萨采用的生产率形式的线性回归模型基本上是一致的。

3.外部经济效益模型

前面有关贸易促进经济增长的实证分析模型,将出口直接作为总产出的一个解释变量,而并没有具体反映出口促进增长的机制。费德(1982)(158)的研究集中分析了出口部门对非出口部门的外部经济效益,由此推导出了一个著名的费德模型。费德模型将国家的产业部门分为出口部门和非出口部门,将出口贸易的相关作用纳入模型中,把出口看作影响技术进步或其他影响经济效率的因素,说明出口对经济增长的促进机制,即出口可以通过两个途径来影响经济增长率:出口部门由于与国外生产者和消费者发生更多的联系,从而具有较高的相对要素生产率;出口部门对其他经济部门的正向外溢效应。费德(1982)的实证研究表明,出口部门与非出口部门之间要素生产效率的确存在显著差别,将资源从非出口部门重新分配到出口部门有助于经济发展。

4.技术吸收增长模型

爱德华(Edwards,1993)(159)的研究提出了一个内生增长模型,重点强调了发展中国家通过贸易自由化,吸收国外先进知识和技术,从而促进经济增长的机制。爱德华模型的设定和推导主要是对生产函数中的内生技术变量做了独特的解释,即与“知识差距”正相关,与贸易扭曲负相关,也就是说,总产出的解释变量在劳动和资本的基础上,再加入贸易扭曲程度和该国与世界之间的知识差距,从而体现知识与技术对总产出的作用及其受制约的因素。

5.贸易扩大与经济增长的因果关系检验

20世纪80年代后期,部分学者对以往的实证研究方法提出了之一,其中一个重要的冲击是协整分析方法的兴起和广泛应用。20世纪70年代以前的计量分析都是以“经济时间序列平稳”为假设前提的,格兰杰(1987)首先提出“伪回归”的问题并引起关注,后来的学者提出了ADF检验法、向量自回归模型等计量方法。

庄格和马歇尔(Jung,Woo S和Peyton J. Marshall,1985)(160)运用了格兰杰因果关系检验,对37个国家的有关数据进行分析,只有4个国家完全满足因果检验条件,因此无法得出出口扩大促进了经济增长的一致结论。此后,达瑞特在1986年以及皮特周在1987年的研究都没有得出出口扩大促进经济增长的一致结论(161)。森格普塔(Jati K. Sengupta,1994)(162)运用“新增长理论”对亚洲新兴工业化国家的增长源泉进行了一项实证研究,其中得出的一个结论是:新增长理论所强调的递增规模收益在成功的亚洲新型工业化国家的增长中的作用是非常显著的,在出口导向的部门更是如此。

6.显示性比较优势

阿奎诺(Aquino,1981)(163)在产品生命周期模型的正统框架内,研究了制造业的比较优势随时间推移从技术先进的国家向技术落后的国家转移的情形。他使用了试图解释特定国家在特定的时间段和指定产品中“显示出来的比较优势”的巴拉萨指数,研究包括特定国家的技术条件和国内市场规模以及物质资本条件。阿奎诺在过去的科研开支、人均创新数目以及单位工作小时的总工资成本的基础上,测算了26个国家样本中的15个国家的技术条件,发现了一个原始尺度,如人均国民生产总值,可以作为技术条件的一个近似的描述。随考察的时间和跨行业的技术系数的变化被阿奎诺看作是各类产品比较优势向技术落后的国家中转移的证明。

(二)出口导向经济增长(ELG)假设命题的实证研究分析方法

关于对外贸易与经济增长关系的经验研究主要集中于对出口导向经济增长假设命题的检验。出口导向经济增长(ELG)假设命题的实证研究在近二十年来引起了研究者的广泛兴趣,研究者们从实证的角度针对不同国家和地区、运用不同的模型与分析方法对该命题做了大量的研究,尽管多数研究表明,出口增长和出口水平与GNP增长具有较高的相关性,但是迄今为止,经济学家们在其因果关系(即到底是一国高速的经济增长引发了更多出口还是更多的出口导致了更快的经济增长)方面一直存在着严重的分歧。

总的说来,已有的研究从实证分析方法上可以分为三类:第一类利用跨国(地区)数据运用相关系数来检验ELG假设;第二类研究是采用基于回归分析的普通最小二乘法,利用跨国(地区)数据检验ELG假设;第三类是近期的研究工作,应用不同的时间序列分析技术来检验出口与经济增长的关系。研究的对象主要是OECD的发达国家以及一些新型工业化国家或地区,其中也包括发展中国家。

1.对跨国(地区)截面数据的研究

这类研究就是前述按分析方法区分的第一类及第二类,都是利用跨国(地区)的截面数据,运用秩相关检验和OLS回归方法直接分析出口与产出之间的关系,或者加入劳动、资本和投资等要素连同出口要素,在总体生产函数中采用OLS回归分析方法分析出口对经济增长的影响。如果发现出口变量与经济增长变量之间存在积极的和统计上的显著相关性,则支持ELG假设;或者用经济增长变量对出口等变量进行回归,如果出口变量前的回归系数是正的和统计显著的,则支持ELG假设。

Maizels(1963)(164)运用秩相关(RC)检验方法分析了7个发达国家1899-1959年制造业出口平均增长与产出增长的关系,得出了支持ELG假设的结论;Balassa (1978)(165)运用秩相关(RC)检验方法分析了11个半工业化国家在1960-1966年和1966-1973年期间的实际GDP平均增长与实际出口平均增长之间的关系,得到了支持ELG假设的结论;同时对上述11个国家在同样的时期内运用OLS回归分析方法,在考虑了劳动力平均增长、国内投资占产出的平均比例、外资占产出的平均比例等变量的基础上,分析了实际GNP平均增长与实际出口平均增长之间的关系,得到了支持ELG假设的结论;Feder(1982)(166)运用OLS方法,连同投资占GDP的平均比重、人口平均增长、外资占GDP的比例等变量,在一个总体生产函数中分析了实际GDP平均增长与出口占GDP比重的平均变化率之间的关系,得到了支持ELG假设的结论;Dollar (1992)(167)运用OLS方法分析了92个国家在1976-1985年间的数据,得到了支持ELG假设的结论;世界银行(World Bank,1993)(168)的一项研究表明,像高储蓄率、高投资率、充分的人力资本积累和恰当的政府干预等因素一样,强调扩大出口是东亚诸经济体的发展战略的基本要素和高速增长的重要源泉。该项研究通过衡量全要素生产率(TFP)的决定因子从而得出结论:在东亚高速增长经济中,“开放一直伴随着全要素生产率增长的卓越表现”,“两个出口表现的代表性指标(制成品出口在总出口中的份额和制成品出口在国内生产总值中的份额)也始终与全要素生产率的高增长率呈正相关”。道吉斯和瑞德尔(1977)(169)使用20世纪50—60年代发展中国家的出口实际检验了有关发达国家和发展中国家存在稳定的出口和生产联系的假说。他们发现,出口增长与国内刺激性财政金融政策是相关的,由此可见,供给因素对出口扩展起了积极的作用。即使撇开供给因素,发达国家对发展中国家进口品的平均收入弹性仍然很高,而关税减让对其实际影响是有限的。McNab和Moore(1998)(170)运用OLS和三阶段回归(3SLS)方法分析了41个发展中国家1963-1973年和1973-1985年两个时期的数据,得出了支持ELG假设的结论。

总的说来,这类经验研究结论一般都支持ELG假设,但是也有少数例外。例如,Michaely(1977)(171)在他的研究中,把所分析的41个国家按人均收入分成两组,运用秩相关(RC)检验方法,发现23个高收入水平国家组成的一组国家的出口增长与经济增长之间在1%的显著水平下存在显著的相关性,而低收入国家一组相关性几乎为零,从而得出结论:出口对经济增长的影响只有在这些国家达到了某个最低发达水平时才会发生;Moschos(1989)(172)在一个用截面数据的生产函数分析中发现了一个临界点,得出的结论是:存在这样一个临界点,在“欠发达”的国家或地区,产出增长主要受出口增长和资本形成的影响;而在“较发达”的国家或地区,劳动增长也很重要,即存在一个临界发达水平效应问题。这意味着,出口对经济增长的导向作用是有条件的。

2.对单个国家(地区)的时间序列研究

近年来基于单个国家数据的时间序列分析成为这一研究领域的主流,其中使用最广泛的分析手段是根据Granger因果检验从统计上判断变量之间因果关系的方向和强度,只有小部分研究利用时间序列数据通过OLS方法估计回归模型来检验ELS假设。

这类研究所采用的方法主要有三种:(1)利用有限价的向量自回归模型(Vector autoregressive,VAR),包括基于水平数据的VAR(即VARL)模型、基于一阶差分数据的VAR(即VARD)模型以及向量误差修正模型(vector error correction model,VECM),使用LR统计量、Wald统计量、F统计量进行检验;(2)脉冲响应函数法(Impulse response functions,IRFs);(3)预测误差方差分解法(Forecast error variance decompositions,FEVDs)。实际上,当向量自回归(VAR)模型可逆时,VAR模型可写成向量移动平均模型(VMA),而IRFs和FEVDs可由移动平均模型直接导出,因此,由VAR模型及IRFs与FEVDs分析得出的结论在一定情况下是相同的。

Jung和Marshall(1985)(173)利用年度数据运用双变量系统VARD模型的Granger(F统计量)因果检验技术分析了37个发展中国家和地区1950-1981年实际GDP(GNP)增长与出口增长的关系,发现只有5个国家支持ELG假设,有11个国家和地区存在GLE(Growth-led Export现象),只有以色列一个国家存在双向的因果关系,而有20个国家的出口增长与经济增长之间不存在因果关系;Chow(1987)(174)利用年度数据,运用双变量系统VAR模型的Sims(F统计量)检验方法分析了8个新兴工业化国家和地区1960-1984年实际的制造业出口与实际制造业产出之间的关系,发现墨西哥支持ELG假设,巴西、中国香港、以色列、韩国新加坡、中国台湾存在双向的因果关系,而阿根廷不存在因果关系。

Oxley(1993)(175)采用年度数据,运用双变量系统的VECM的Granger(Wald统计量)检验方法,利用ADF(Augmented Dickey-Fuller)单位根检验和Johanson和Juselius (JJ)协整检验技术以及FPE(final prediction error)准则分析了葡萄牙1865-1991年实际GDP与出口的关系,发现存在GLE现象;瑞德尔(1977)(176)通过模拟香港出口产品的供给和需求曲线进一步否定了需求决定论。香港作为八十年代发展中地区最大的出口者,其出口增长非常迅速。它所出口的制成品面对的需求收入弹性几乎是完全充分的。发达国家或地区经济增长放宽并没有影响其出扩增长的势头,即使世界市场的价格有超常的波动,香港能够调整生产投入以保证出口扩张。由此可见,供给而非需求因素决定了出口实绩。

Karunaratne(1994)(177)运用双变量系统VARD模型的Granger(F统计量)检验以及6变量的IRFs(脉冲响应函数法,impulse response functions)和FEVDs(预测误差方差分解法,forecast error variance decompositions)方法,利用ADF单位根检验和AIC (Akaike information criterion)准则,采用澳大利亚1959年第三季度至1992年第一季度的数据分析了实际GDP和出口的关系,发现运用双变量的Granger检验方法支持ELG,而运用IRFs和FEVDs方法不支持ELG;Ghatak(1998)(178)采用对数后的年度数据,运用7变量系统VARL模型(基于水平数据的VAR模型)、贝叶斯VAR模型(BVAR模型)以及VECM的Granger检验方法,利用ADF单位根检验、带常数和时间趋势的EG-ADF协整分析技术与FPE准则,在考虑了实际的人均投资、政府支出、货币供给、利率汇率等5个变量的基础上,分析了韩国实际人均GDP与出口的关系,发现如果运用VARL模型则不支持ELG假设,如果采用VECM和BVAR模型则支持ELG假设;Dhawan和Biswal(1999)(179)利用VAR模型及JJ协整分析技术在考虑了贸易条件变量的基础上分析了印度1961-1963年实际GDP与实际出口的关系,发现ELG只是一个短期现象。Liu,Song和Romilly(1997)(180)运用双变量系统的VANRD模型的Granger检验方法采用ADF单位根检验以及EG-ADF协整分析技术分析了中国1983年第三季度至1995年第一季度实际GNP与出口及实际进出口总额之间的关系,发现运用Granger方法支持出口导向经济增长假设;1981年使用Sims方法检验发现支持GLE;1984年使用Geweke方法发现不支持GLE假设。

3.微观经验实证研究

由于宏观研究的困境,近年来一些研究者开始将目光转向微观领域,试图在产业或企业层次上探索出口与生产率增长之间的因果关系,其研究的主题是:企业是因为效率高而出口还是因为出口导致效率变得更高。微观层面上的出口与生产率因果关系研究由于研究方法以及选取国家的差异而给出不同的结果,总体而言,否定“出口学习效应”的假说的证据居多。

罗德里克(Rodrik,1999)(181)通过对大量文献卓有成效的研究得出结论:即使没有任何证据说明,出口所得的一美元对经济增长的贡献大于或小于其他生产行为创造的一美元,也就是说,出口崇拜论是没有根据的。Clerides(1998)(182)利用一个双方程模型对来自哥伦比亚、墨西哥以及摩洛哥的企业数据进行了仔细研究,发现企业的出口属于“自选”行为,没有证据显示出口对企业具有学习效应。具体而言,其研究表明,效率相对较高的企业往往成为出口企业,但企业的单位成本却不会因企业参与出口市场而受到影响。虽然他们发现一些证据表明出口商在国外市场上与其他企业的竞争中降低了成本,但却无助于这些企业提高效率。Bernard和Jensen(1999)(183)利用截面数据回归方法对美国和德国的一些制造业企业进行研究,他们发现,具有较高劳动率水平的企业成为出口商,但是出口对企业生产率的增长却毫无积极作用,在一些案例中甚至起负作用。Aw等(1998)(184)对中国台湾和韩国企业的组平均生产率截面数据进行研究后发现,在中国台湾企业中,“自选行为”的证据居多,也有部分支持“出口学习效应”假说;而在韩国企业中,不仅“自选行为”的证据较弱,而且也没有找到支持“出口学习效应”假说的证据。

Kraay(1999)(185)利用一个一元动态截面方程对中国企业样本进行检验时发现支持“出口学习效应”假说。Castellani(2002)(186)利用意大利1989-1994年制造业企业数据,对劳动生产率增长与出口行为进行了回归分析,发现如果出口行为是以出口密度(出口占总销售的比重)来衡量,那么出口对生产率增长有显著的促进作用,而如果出口行为是直接以出口与否来衡量,那么出口对生产率增长毫无影响。因而,Castellani认为,企业进入出口市场本身并不能产生任何“学习效应”,但是企业显著介入国际活动,进行国际投资并长期进行对外交往就能够产生“学习效应”,也就是说,“学习效应”的产生有一定的涉外程度“门槛”。劳伦斯等(Lawrence,R.Z.,2000)(187)则是在部门的层次上检验了日本、韩国以及美国的出口与劳动生产率的关系。他们利用1964-1985年日本的数据,对产出和出口产出比的对数形式相对于劳动生产率水平和上一年的因变量进行了回归,发现同期的全要素生产率与产出和出口密切相关,而且上一年的全要素生产率与出口的相关关系更为紧密,由此得出结论:是更高水平的劳动生产率导致了更高水平的出口,“而决非相反的因果关系”。在对韩国1963-1983年数据的分析中,他们发现了出口导向增长的反面效果:以出口开始发展的部门,劳动生产率较少。劳伦斯(Lawrence,R.Z.,1999)(188)在对20世纪80年代美国100多个制造业产业中国际竞争对其全要素生产率的影响进行了研究,也未发现在出口占国内生产的比重同劳动生产率增长之间存在任何正向相关关系的证据。

可见,关于出口与经济增长的因果关系的微观经验研究更倾向于给出否定的结论。出口企业的“出口学习效应”假说与“出口导向经济增长”假说之间的关系实际上是非常间接的。迄今为止的经验研究尚未解决出口与经济增长之间的因果关系问题。

三、进口与经济增长和发展关系的经验研究结论

传统观念倾向于认为,进口会挤占国内市场从而不利于本国的经济发展。因此,长期以来关于对外贸易与经济增长关系的研究文献往往只关注和分析出口与经济增长之间的关系,这种情况直到近几年才开始有所改变。也就是说,近年来人们开始意识到,进口也可能对经济增长产生积极的促进作用,所以相关的经验研究也陆续出现。20世纪90年代以来的文献都认为进口(特别是资本品的进口)通过其生及溢出效应,使进口国更快地接近国外技术水平。

(一)关于贸易保护与经济增长的实证研究

巴罗等人(Barro,1992(189);Sala-I-Martin,1992;Dollar,1992(190);Edwards,1992(191))研究了各国的GNP数据后发现,研究范围内的国家中那些采用典型贸易保护政策的国家都增长得比较慢。Romer(1993(192))利用76个发展中国家1960年的截面数据分析了机器和设备进口对生产的影响,Lee(1995)(193)利用一组国家1960-1985年的截面数据分析了投资中进口资本品与国内资本品比例对单位资本产出率的影响,贝森和温斯坦(Beason and Weintein,1996)(194)研究了日本的案例,克里西纳和米切(Krishna and Mitra,1998)(195)研究了印度的情况,他们发现,在不同的产业中都没有表现出贸易保护与劳动生产率增长之间的正相关关系。

(二)进口与技术扩散

一些文献探讨了普通进口与技术扩散之间的可能联系(Coe和Helpman,1995(196);Keller,1997(197),2001(198)),Wang和Xu(2000)(199)考察了工业化国家间通过资本品贸易和外商投资而产生的R&D溢出效应,这些文献都认为,进口(特别是资本品进口)通过其生产率及其技术溢出,使得进口国更快地接近国外技术水平。Coe(1997)(200)等考察了通过机器和设备进口而流向欠发达国家的R&D溢出效应。

Coe和Helpman(1995)(201)基于Grossman和Helpman(1991)的“创新驱动”增长理论模型,首次实证考察了进口贸易对国际技术溢出和全要素生产率(TFP)增长的影响。他们使用双边进口份额作为权重来构造国外R&D存量,分析贸易伙伴国的R&D如何通过进口贸易这一国际技术外溢渠道影响本国的技术进步。他们采用了21个OECD国家以及以色列的面板数据,实证检验了工业化国家之间的进口贸易的技术溢出效应,结果表明,贸易伙伴国的研发投入能够显著地提升本国的全要素生产率,即刺激本国的经济增长。劳伦斯(Lawrence,R.Z.,1999)(202)对20世纪80年代美国100多个制造业产业中国际竞争对其全要素生产率的影响进行了研究,发现进口竞争刺激了全要素生产率的提高。劳伦斯(Lawrence,R.Z.,2000)(203)等人还在部门的层次上检验了日本(1964-1985年数据)和韩国(1963-1983年数据)的进口和产业政策与劳动生产率的关系,发现进口是促进劳动生产率增长的一个重要因素,而且进口对竞争的贡献大于其对中间投入的贡献。Jakob(2005)(204)将国内技术存量运用国内的人口数量进行标准化,将国外的技术存量用国外实际GDP进行平减,以人均进口量作为权重对国外R&D进行加权,采用1983-2002年13个OECD国家的面板数据,实证检验结果表明,进口贸易的技术溢出能够给OECD国家带来200%的TFP增长,但进口贸易的溢出效应在不同国家之间的分布极不平衡,而且导致了OECD国家TFP增长出现了收敛现象。

Falvey、Foster和Greenaway(2002(205),2004)(206)在模型中考虑到了技术或知识对溢出国和移入国来说是公共物品还是私有物品的特性,从而对国外R&D加权权数赋予新信息,使权数的构造能够更全面地反映进口贸易作为国际技术外溢渠道的作用。研究结果表明,对技术溢出国而言,技术是公共物品或私有物品并不重要,但对技术的移入国而言,如果存在进口贸易的溢出效应,则移入的技术必须是公共物品。

Connolly(2003)(207)利用75个国家1965-1990年的专利数据来代表这些国家的模仿和创新,量化了高科技产品进口对进口国(发展中国家)模仿与创新的溢出效应,发现:(1)进口国(发展中国家)模仿与创新都显著而一致地依赖于来自发达国家的高科技进口;(2)在技术扩散中,相对发达国家而言,进口对于发展中国家的意义更大;(3)来自发达国家的外来技术对进口国单位资本GDP增长的贡献大于其国内的创新;(4)相对发达国家而言,高技术进口在发展中国家生产中的重要性更大。显然,这些发现与上述关于从发达国家的进口通过静态效应(生产)和动态外部性(技术溢出)使发展中国家受益的观点一致。

(三)关于进口贸易技术外溢效应的影响因素的实证分析

尽管进口贸易作为技术溢出的一个渠道得到了一定的认同,进口贸易的技术外溢效应也为大量实证研究所证实,但是发展中国家通过国际进口贸易提升技术从而促进经济增长还是受到了一定的限制,即进口贸易技术溢出效应的产生要受到一些因素的影响:如进口渗透率、人力资本、贸易开放度、政府管制和国家的经济发展水平等。国内外学者在其贸易溢出模型中加入某些影响因素的相关变量,分析上述因素对进口贸易溢出效应产生及其对经济增长作用的影响因素。

Coe、Helpman和Hoffmaister(1997)(208)在Coe和Helpman(1995)模型的基础上加入出口渗透率和人力资本变量,采用77个欠发达国家的面板数据,进一步检验出口贸易的技术外溢对发展中国家全要素生产率的影响。检验结果表明,发展中国家的全要素生产率与其工业化的贸易伙伴国的R&D和来自工业化国家的机械设备的进口以及本国的人力资本存量呈显著的正相关关系,即人力资本较充裕的发展中国家通过进口贸易也可以分享发达国家的R&D成果。Jorge、Carmela和Francisco(2002)通过增加进口渗透率变量,使用OECD国家的面板数据,证实了引入进口渗透率以后进口贸易作为技术溢出渠道对OECD国家经济增长的重要性。

Gouranga(2000)(209)构造了一个包括3个地区、6种贸易商品的GTAP模型,考察了影响进口贸易这种物化型技术溢出效应产生的因素,结论表明,技术移入国的技术吸纳能力、进口贸易量和其产业结构是否与技术溢出国相似等因素共同决定了此国能够成功地获得国外先进技术。

Schiff和Wang(2004)(210)在Coe和Helpman(1995)模型的基础上加入教育和政府管制水平的相关变量,实证检验了拉丁美洲的贸易技术扩散效应,认为教育和政府管制水平的提高可以提升国内R&D密集型产业的TFP,从而增强国外技术扩散的吸纳能力。TFP的提升又提高了对教育和政府管制水平的要求,以更进一步提升国内的TFP,即教育和政府管制可以形成国内TFP增长的良性循环。

Ben David(1993)(211)的分析结论表明,在欧洲的几个贸易自由化时期,实行贸易自由化国家的人均收入出现了收敛,即出现了经济增长收敛现象。Sachs和Warner (1995)采用不同的标准将20世纪70年代的各个国家分为“贸易开放型”和“贸易封闭型”两类,实证检验结果表明,1970-1989年间,只有属于“贸易开放型”的国家经济出现了收敛。因此,他们认为,开放的经济表现出了强烈的收敛趋势。Falvey、Foster和Greenaway(2002)(212)在模型中引入了Sachs和Warner(1995)开放度指标考察其对进口贸易技术溢出效应的影响作用,结果发现,贸易开放度通过技术外溢以外的途径影响技术移入国的技术进步和经济增长。

20世纪90年代中期以来,一些西方学者开始关注价格贸易条件的波动性。美国经济学家Razin(1995)(213)、Mendoza(1995)(214)等人通过计量分析和研究发现,过去的30年中,发展中国家价格贸易条件的波动性远远大于发达国家(例如“七国集团”),这使发展中国家的经济福利颇为不稳定。其他学者也陆续证实了这一结论,并对引起价格贸易条件波动的原因进行了深入探讨,如Marianne Baxter和Michael A. Kouparitsas (2000)(215)认为,发展中国家的价格贸易条件平均每年波动的幅度是发达国家价格贸易条件波动幅度的两倍多。Razin、Sadka和Coury(2002)(216)将价格贸易条件的波动性与贸易开放和投资不稳定性联系起来,认为开放经济条件下,国家中是在“乐观预期、好的贸易条件、投资扩张”和“悲观预期、差的贸易条件、投资收缩”之间波动,而这种波动,发展中国家比发达国家要突出得多。Blattman、Hwang和Williamson (2003)(217)以35个国家的数据为基础,分析1870-1938年“外围”和“中心”国家价格贸易条件波动性及其长期变动趋势与经济增长之间的关系,他们通过回归分析得出的结论是,价格贸易条件的波动性及其长期变动趋势都会影响到“外围”国家的经济增长(“中心”国家则几乎不受影响),相比之下,价格贸易条件的波动性影响更大,因而也更重要。

可以说,关于贸易与经济增长和发展关系的研究目前处于这样的状况:理论上阐述的贸易促进经济增长和发展的观点已被广泛接受,但实证方面的结果却尚未一致,还没有人能够以充分的证据表明贸易在多大程度上促进了经济增长和发展。在这个意义上讲,贸易促进经济增长和发展的说法仍然是一个有待证明的命题。

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