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美国政府安全压倒“民主”的现实考虑

时间:2022-03-19 理论教育 版权反馈
【摘要】:美国的外交政策一直受到现实主义的影响。现实主义关注权力和权力平衡。在上述情形下,参与政府“民主援助”项目的美国跨国公司也跟着政府侵犯了他国人权。在这一前提下,私人公司参与美国政府支持第三世界“专制政权”的活动构成了对美国政府公开声明的外交政策目标的违背,破坏了美国外交实施过程中的“民主责任”。
美国政府安全压倒“民主”的现实考虑_美国跨国公司与“ 民主促进”:一种国家— 市场— 社会关系分析视角

四、美国政府安全压倒“民主”的现实考虑

按照国家主义的观点,政治因素部分地决定了经济活动的结果。所有的国际经济行为体,包括美国跨国公司,都是在一个由大国建立起来的政治框架中运作。要理解美国跨国公司与人权的关系,就必须首先熟悉美国政府的官方政策。[118]美国政府在人权问题上的外交政策不能不影响到本国跨国公司的海外经营行为。美国的外交政策一直受到现实主义的影响。现实主义对政治和人性的看法是悲观的。它强调人性本质中恶的一面。现实主义关注权力和权力平衡。权力,而不是法律或国际组织被用作调节行为的手段。现实主义明确区分私人道德和公共道德。它认为私人道德标准不应直接适用于国家行为。[119]现实主义成为“二战”后(包括冷战时期和冷战后时期)指导美国外交政策的主导观点。在现实主义思想的指导下,美国政府(主要是行政部门)不仅容忍第三世界威权主义盟友侵犯人权的行为,而且还自己侵犯或参与侵犯第三世界国家人权的行为。在上述情形下,参与政府“民主援助”项目的美国跨国公司也跟着政府侵犯了他国人权。美国文莱尔公司就是这方面的典型例子。

文莱尔公司案例讲述的是“一家不出名的美国私人军火公司如何最后变成沙特君主的私人卫队的故事,是一个关于美国政府如何在世界舞台上依赖不负责任的公司与非经选举产生的外国政府做肮脏的事情,以阻碍国内外民主发展的故事”。[120]文莱尔公司于1931年创建,开始时是洛杉矶的一家建筑公司。早期的发展是靠承包高速公路建筑合同。但到“二战”结束,公司已涉足军事和情报工作。文莱尔第一个海外合同涉及向蒋介石供应军火,助蒋消灭毛泽东的革命力量。该公司在亚洲与军用建筑有关的生意很快红火起来。它在冲绳、中国台湾、泰国、越南南部和巴基斯坦承建军用机场。文莱尔的亚洲事业成了其扩展为一家全球性公司的跳板。美国中央情报局前局长维尔伯·克拉里·伊维兰德(Wilbur Crane Eveland)在其备忘录中描述了他在20世纪60年代早期负责非洲和中东的情报事务时如何利用其与文莱尔的联系作掩护进行情报工作的,备忘录还提到了公司创始人阿尔伯特·文莱尔(Albert Vinnell)表达了其愿意帮助中央情报局做后者所需要做的一切事情(当然要收费)。伊维兰德用贿赂的方式为文莱尔争取到在伊朗和利比亚油田的建设服务合同,以此回报后者对自己的支持。

文莱尔在军事/情报领域最大的突破是在美国入侵越南期间。文莱尔公司除了从事修建军事基地、修理装甲车、经营军事仓库等军事后勤外,还替五角大楼培养安全力量,成为五角大楼在越南的“雇佣军”。1975年2月文莱尔公司获得了金额为77 000 000万美元的训练沙特国民警卫队的合同。[121]

冷战结束后,这家总部设在弗吉尼亚的公司雇请约750名退休的军事和情报人员负责训练沙特国民警卫队,以防卫具有“普力夺”性质的沙特君主政权,使其免受可能要求改变王室统治形式的叛乱分子和民主人士的攻击。

上述案例表明:尽管美国外交政策一直声称:“不管是在冷战期间面对共产主义的专制意识形态的攻击,还是在今天面对伊斯兰教原教旨主义的攻击,美国都在全世界努力促进民主价值观”,但文莱尔案例表明在冷战和冷战后时期,美国政府实际上主要奉行的是现实主义的外交政策,对国家利益、地区安全和全球霸权的考虑压倒了对第三世界人权和“真正有意义的民主”的关注,亦即为了美国国家利益,美国宁愿支持第三世界的“专制政权”。在这一前提下,私人公司参与美国政府支持第三世界“专制政权”的活动构成了对美国政府公开声明的外交政策目标的违背,破坏了美国外交实施过程中的“民主责任”。另一方面,文莱尔通过承揽政府合同项目的方式广泛参与了美国在第三世界的军事后勤、援助和情报活动。这些活动给文莱尔公司带来了大量利润,同时也使文莱尔公司客观上成了美国政府基于“遏共反恐”的战略利益而支持非民主的独裁或威权主义政权的工具,如援助蒋介石政权、南越政权和沙特政权。

【注释】

[1]William H.Meyer,Human Rights and International Political Economy in Third World Nations—Multi‐national Corporations,Foreign Aid,and Repression,Praeger,Westport,Connecticut London,1998,pp.7—11.

[2]William H.Meyer,Human Rights and International Political Economy in Third World Nations—Multi‐national Corporations,Foreign Aid,and Repression,Praeger,Westport,Connecticut London,1998,pp.7—11.

[3]William H.Meyer,Human Rights and International Political Economy in Third World Nations—Multina‐tional Corporations,Foreign Aid,and Repression,Praeger,Westport,Connecticut London,1998,p.10.

[4]Ibid.,p.11.

[5]Donnelly,Jack.Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1989,p.2.

[6]Cranston,Maurice,What are Human Rights?New York:Taplinger,1973,pp.65—67.

[7]Bollen,K.A.,“If You Ignore Outliers Will They Go Away?A Reply to Gasiorowski,”Comparative Politi‐cal Studies 20,4,1998,pp.516—522;Gasiorowski,M.J.,“Economic Dependence and Political Democracy:A Cross‐National Study,”Comparative Political Studies 20,4,1988,pp.489—515.

[8]Becker,D.S.,Frieden,J.,Schatz,S.P.,and Sklar,R.L.,Postimperialism:International Captalism and Development in the Late Twentieth Century,Boulder,CO:Lynne Rienner,1987.

[9]Pritchard,Kathleen,“Human Rights and Development:Theory and Data,”In David P.Forsythe(ed.),Hu‐man Rights and Development,New York:St.Martin’s,1989,pp.329—347.

[10]Lerner,Daniel,The Passing of Traditional Sociality:Modernizing the Middle East,New York:The Free Press,1964.

[11]Winston.Morton Emanuel,“Human Rights and International Political Economy in Third World Nations:Multinational Corporations,Foreign Aid,and Repression,”Human Rights Quarterly,Vol.21,No.3,August 1999,pp.824—830.

[12]Matthias Busse,Transnational Corporations and Repression of Political Rights and Civil Liberties:An Empir‐ical Analysis,KYK LOS,Vol.57,2004‐Fasc.1,pp.45—66.

[13]Hymer,Stephen.“The Multinational Corporation and the Law of Uneven Development,”In George Mode‐lski(ed.),Transnational Corporations and World Order,pp.386—403.San Francisco.Calif.:W.H.Freeman,1979,p.400.

[14]Ibid.,p.387.

[15]Ibid.,pp.393—394.

[16]Ibid.,p.395.

[17]Ibid.,p.396.

[18]Hymer,Stephen.“The Multinational Corporation and the Law of Uneven Development,”In George Mode‐lski(ed.),Transnational Corporations and World Order,pp.386—403.San Francisco.Calif.:W.H.Freeman,1979,p.400.

[19]Schoultz.Lars,Human Rights and United States Policy toward Latin America,Princeton.,N.J.:Prince‐ton University Press,1981.

[20]Browett,J.“The Newly Industrializing Countries and the Radical Theories of Development,”World Devel‐opment 13,7,1985,pp.789—809.

[21]Baran.P.,The Political Economy of Growth,New York:Monthly Review Press,1962.

[22]Emmanuel.A.Unequel Exchange:A Study of the Imperialism of Trade,New York:Monthly Review Press,1969.

[23]Cardoso and Faletto,Dependency and Development in Latin America,Berkeley,CA:University of Califor‐nia Press,1979;Evans.P.B,Dependent Development:The Alliance of Mulitinational,State,and Local Capital in Brazil,Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1979;Bornschier and Chase‐Dunn,Transnational Corporations and Underdevelopment,New York:Praeger,1985;Bradshaw,“Reassessing Economic Dependency and Uneven De‐velopment:The Kenyan Experience,”American Sociological Review 53,1988,pp.693—708;Cardoso and Fishlow,“Latin American Economic Development:1950—1980,”Journal of Latin American Studies,24,1992,pp.197—218.

[24]Krasner.S.D.Structural Conf lict:The Third World Against Global Liberalism,Berkeley,CA:University of California Press,1985,pp.81—92.

[25]Bornschier.V.and Chase‐Dunn,C.,Transnational Coporations and Underdevelopment,New York:Prae‐ger,1985,Chapter 10.

[26]Vernon.R.,Sovereignty at Bay:The Multinational Spread of US Enterprises,New York:Basic Books,1971.

[27]Indra de Soysa,Foreign Direct Investment,Democracy,and Development:Assessing contours,correlates,and concomitants of globalization,Routledge Taylor&Francis Group,London and New York,2003,p.49.

[28]Ibid.p.120.

[29]Muller,Ronald,“Poverty is the Product,”In George Modelski(ed.),Transnational Corporations and World Order,1979,pp.245—262.San Fransico.Cailf.:W.H.Freeman.

[30]Spero,Joan Edelman,The Politics of International Economic Relations,New York:St.Martin’s,1990.

[31]Walters,Robert S.,&Blake,David H,The Politics of Global Economic Relations.Englewood Cliffs,N.J.:Prentice‐Hall,1992.

[32]Frank,A.G.Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America,New York:Monthly Review Press.

[33]Gilpin,R.,The Political Economy of International Relations,Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1987.

[34]David L.Richards,“Money with a Mean Streak?”International Studies Quarterly(2001)45,pp.219—239.

[35]Indra de Soysa,Foreign Direct Investment,Democracy,and Development,p.39.

[36]Haggard,Stephan,and Sylvia Maxfield.,“The Political Economy of Financial Internationalization in the De‐veloping World,”In Internationalization and Domestic Politics,ed.Robert O.Keohane and Helen V.Milner.New York:Cambridge University Press,1996,pp.209—239.

[37]Rodrik,D.,“The Rush to Free Trade in the Developing World:Why So Late?Why Now?Will it Last?”in Sturzenegger,F.and Tommasi,M.(eds.)The Political Economy of Reform,Cambridge,MA:MIT Press,1998.

[38]Bhattacharya,Montiel,and Sharma,How Can Sub‐Saharan Africa Attract More Private Capital Inflows?Fi‐nance&Development,June 1997,pp.3—6;Maxfield,“Understanding the Political Implications of Capital Flows to Developing Countries,”World Development,26(7),1998.

[39]Armijo,L.E.“Mixed Blessings:Expectations about Capital Flows and Democracy in Emerging Markets,”in Armijo,L.E.(ed.)Financial Globalization and Democracy in Emerging Markets,Basingstoke:Palgrave,1996b,p.22.

[40]William H.Meyer,“Human Rights and MNCs:Theory Versus Quantitative Analysis,”Human Rights Quarterly,Volume 18,May of 1996.

[41]Ibid.p.379.

[42]Sylvia Maxfield,“Understanding the Political Implications of Capital Flows to Developing Countries,”World Development 26,(July 1998),pp.1201—1220.

[43]O’Donnell,G.Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism:Studies in Latin American Politics,Berkeley,CA:University of California Press,1973.

[44]Armijo,L.E.,“Mixed Blessing:Expectations about Foreign Capital Flows and Democracy in Emerging Mar‐kets,”in L.E.Armijo(ed.),Financial Globalisation and Democracy in Emerging Markets,Basingstoke,Macmillan,1999,p.39.

[45]Haughton,J.,“Vietnam and Foreign Direct Investment:Speeding Economic Transition or Prolonging the Twilight Zone,”in Armijo(ed.),Financial Globalization,1999.

[46]Lea,D.,“Corporate and Public Responsibility,Stakeholder Theory and the Developing World,”Business Ethics:A European Review,1999,p.160.

[47]Armijo,L.E.“Mixed Blessings:Expectations about Capital Flows and Democracy in Emerging Markets,”in Armijo,L.E.(ed.)Financial Globalization and Democracy in Emerging Markets,Basingstoke:Palgrave,1999b,p.31.

[48]Ibid.,p.35.

[49]Arthur A.Goldsmith,“Political Freedom and the Business Climate:Outlook for Development in Newly De‐mocratizing States,”Social Science Quarterly,Vol.75,1994,p.116.

[50]Morton E.Winston,“Multinational Corporations and Human Rights,”public address to Mobil Corporation’s World Affairs meetings,summer 1996.

[51]Morton E.Winston,“Multinational Corporations and Human Rights,”public address to Mobil Corporation’s World Affairs meetings,summer 1996.

[52]Morton E.Winston,“Multinational Corporations and Human Rights,”public address to Mobil Corporation’s World Affairs meetings,summer 1996.

[53]Gartern Jeffrey E.,The Politics of Fortune,Boston Mass:Haward Bussiness School Press,2002,p.154.

[54]Garten Jeffrey E.,“Business and Foreign Policy,”Foreign Affairs,May/June,1997.p.71.

[55]Richard Youngs,International Democracy and the West,Oxford University Press,2004,p.118.

[56]Ibid.,p.119.

[57]Richard Youngs,“Democracy and the Multinationals,”Democratization,Vol.11.No.1,Feburary 2004,p.131.

[58]Hirst and Thompson,Globalization in Question:The International Economy and the Possibilities of Govern‐ance,2nd edtion,Cambridge:Polity Press,1999,pp.277—278.

[59]Paul Hirst,Grahame Thompson.Globalization in question:theinternational economy and the possibilities of governance,London:Polity Press,1999,pp.277—278.

[60]J.Hellman.G.Jones and D.Kaufmann,“Seize the State,Seize the Day:State Capture,Corruptions,Influ‐ence in Transition,”World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2444,Washington,DC:World Bank,2000.

[61]Richard Youngs,“Democracy and the Multinationals,”Democratization,p.128.

[62]B.Farrell and D.Cobbin,“A Content Analysis of Codes of Conducts from Fifty‐Seven National Accounting Organisations,”Business Ethics:A European Review,Vol.9,No.3,1999,p.183.

[63]D.Lea,“Corporate and Public Responsibility,Stakeholder Theory and the Developing World,”BusinessEth‐ics:A European Review,Vol.9,No.3,1999,p.183.

[64]William H.Meyer,Human Rights and International Political Economy in Third World Nations—Multina‐tional Corporations,Foreign Aid,and Repression,Praeger,Westport,Connecticut London,1998.

[65]MaClagan,P.,“Corporate Social Responsibility as a Participative Process,”Business Ethics:A European Review,8/1,1999,p.46.

[66]Richard Youngs,International Democracy and the West,Oxford University Press,2004,p.119.

[67]Olsen,M.,Thelogic of Collective Action:Public Goods and the The Theory of Groups,Cambridge Massa‐chusetts,Harvard University Press,1965,especially chapter 1.

[68]Richard Youngs,International Democracy and the West,Oxford University Press,2004,p.105.

[69]“Western finance,trade and investment look primarily for stability,not type of government or flavor of capi‐talism And Indonesia has been stable,”private correspondence,25 January,1998.

[70]G.John Ikenberry,“Why Export Democracy?The“hidden grand strategy,”of American Foreign policy is re‐emerging into plain view after a long Cold War hibernation,”The Wilson Quarterly,Vol.23,No.2,Spring 1999.

[71]埃里克·洛朗:《布什的秘密世界》,贾宗谊等译,新华出版社,2005年,第198页。

[72]同上书,第199页。

[73]U.S.State Department,Foreign Economic Trends Report:Burma,Washington,D.C.,June 1997.

[74]Mark Turner&Hugh Williamson,“Whitewash Feared in Oil‐for‐Food Scandal,”Financial Times,Decem‐ber 2,2005.

[75]Leslie Elliott Armijo edited,Financial Globalization and Democracy in Emerging Markets,Macmillan Press Ltd 1999,p.245.

[76]刘建飞:《民主对21世纪国际关系的影响》,《战略与管理》,2002年第3期,第75页。

[77]Leslie Elliott Armijjo edited,FinancialGlobalization and Democracy in Emerging Markets,Macmillan Press Ltd 1999,p.209.

[78]Danna Harmann,Israel,“Caterpillar Should Suspend Bulldozer Sales,”Human Rights Watch,November 22,2004.

[79]Michael Shtender‐Auerbach,“Freedom:File Cannot Be Found The Century Foundation”,www.tcf.org/list.asp?type=NC&pubid=1280.4/27/2006.

[80]“U.S.Officials Exbihibit Dichotomy in Policy on Indonesia and Human Rights,”Washington Post,March 18,1995.

[81]See David C.Korten,When Corporations Rule the World‐2nd Edition,www.informationclearinghouse.info/,September21,2008.

[82]Keith B.Richburg;Anne Swardson,“U.S.Industry Overseas:Sweatshop or Job Source?Indonesians Praise Work at Nike Factory”,The Washington Post,July 28,1996.

[83]“An Indonesian Asset Is Also a Liability:Low Wages Woo Foreign Business,But the Price Is Worker Pover‐ty,”New York Times,March 16,1996.

[84]“Brutality in Vietnam,”New York Times,March 28,1997.

[85]Human Rights Watch,“The Enron Corporation:Corporate Complicity in Human Rights Violations”,January 1999, http://www.corpwatch.org/trac/feature/humanrts/cases/enron.html.

[86]Representative Dennis Kucinich(D‐OH)circulated a letter in Congress requesting hearings on the role of Chevron and other U.S.multinationalsin human rights abuses in the countries where they operate.www.seen.org/pa-ges/map.shtml.

[87]“Indonesia Goes for Gold in Sweatshops,”Los Angeles Times,July 28,1996.

[88]“An Indonesian Asset Is Also a Liability:Low Wages Woo Foreign Business,But the Price Is Worker Pov‐erty,”New York Times,March 16,1996.

[89]“An Indonesian Asset Is Also a Liability:Low Wages Woo Foreign Business,But the Price Is Worker Pov‐erty,”New York Times,March 16,1996.

[90]“Officials Accused of Intimidation,”New York Times,Augest 15,1993.

[91]Levinson,Jerome I.,The Labor Side Agreement to NAFTA:An Endorsement of Abuse of Labor Rights in Mexico,Washington,D.C.:Economic Policy Institute,1993.www.labor.ucla.edu/publications/nafta.pdf.

[92]“Officials Accused of Intimidation,”New York Times,Augest 15,1993.

[93]Business Week,April 19,1993.

[94]“Blacklist Charged at Border Plants,”New York Times,August 15,1993.

[95]“The Mexican Worker,”Business Week,April 19,1993.

[96]“Mexico Plants Accused of Discrimination,”Wilmington News Journal,August 18,1996.

[97]William H.Meyer,“Human Rights and International Political Economy in Third World Nations—Multina‐tional Corporations,Foreign Aid,and Repression,”p.171.

[98]Aram Roston,“It’s The Real Thing:Murder US firms like Coca Colaare implicated in Colombia’s brutality,”The Nation Magazine,Septemper 3/10,2001.

[99]Aram Roston,“It’s The Real Thing:Murder US firms like Coca Cola are implicated in Colombia’s brutality”,The Nation Magazine Septemper 3/10,2001.

[100]Aram Roston,“It’s The Real Thing:Murder US firms like Coca Cola are implicated in Colombia’s bru‐tality”,The Nation Magazine Septemper 3/10,2001.

[101]Aram Roston,“It’s The Real Thing:Murder US firms like Coca Cola are implicated in Colombia’s bru‐tality”,The Nation Magazine Septemper 3/10,2001.

[102]Aram Roston,“It’s The Real Thing:Murder US firms like Coca Cola are implicated in Colombia’s bru‐tality”,The Nation Magazine Septemper 3/10,2001.

[103]O’Donnell,Guillermo.“Bureaucratic Authoritarianism:Argentina,1966—1973,”Comparative Perspective,Berkeley:University of California Press,1988.

[104]Richard Youngs,International Democracy and the West,p.126.

[105]曹卫国:《美国严打跨国企业海外行贿》,《参考消息》,2009年8月27日。

[106]杨育谋:《揭开跨国公司行贿黑幕》,《大经贸》,2003年第3期。

[107]新帕尔格雷夫:《经济学大辞典》第2卷,经济科学出版社,1992年,第57页。

[108]同上书,第19页。

[109]Jeffrey E.Garten,“Business and Foreign Policy,”Foreign A f fairs,May/June,1997,p.78.

[110]Jeffrey E.Garten,“Business and Foreign Policy,”Foreign A f fairs,May/June,1997,p.78.

[111]Leslie Elliott Armijo edited,Financial Globalization and Democracy in Emerging Markets,Macmillan Press Ltd 1999,p.244.

[112]Ibid.,p.246.

[113]Michael Burawoy,The Politics of Production:Factory Regimes Under Capitalism and Socialism,London:Verso,1985,p.150.

[114]Indra de Soysa,Foreign Direct Investment,Democracy,and Development,New York,Routledge,Taylor&Francis Group,2003,p.39.

[115]何增科译:《全球资本主义与中国走向民主的道路》,《国外理论动态》,2001年第5期,第26—27页。

[116]Amnesty International,“Nigeria:Are Human Rights in the Pipeline?”www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/tncs/2004/1109amnesty.htm,November9,2004.

[117]东道国的体制漏洞诱发了大量的跨国公司行贿行为。如“透明国际”(一个监督全球范围内腐败的组织)主席彼特·埃根(Peter Eigen)博士所注意到的:在《全球反腐败公约》被采纳时,OECD大会认识到发展中国家大量的腐败显然与跨国公司有关,那些总部位于发达国家的跨国公司在发展中国家和转型中国家通过支付大量的贿金和回扣赢得合同。参见Robert Weissman,“Taking On Corporate Power—And Winning,”Multinational Monitor,NOVEM‐BER/DECEMBER 2005。

[118]William H.Meyer,“Human Rights and International Political Economy in Third World Nations—Multina‐tional Corporations,Foreign Aid,and Repression,”p.37.

[119]Ibid,p.41.

[120]William D.Hartung,Mercenaries Inc.,“How a U.S.Company Props Up the House of Saud,”Progressive,April 1996, http://www.commondreams.org/views03/0513-06.htm.

[121]William D.Hartung,Mercenaries Inc.,“How a U.S.Company Props Up the House of Saud,”Progressive,April 1996. http://www.commondreams.org/views03/0513-06.htm.

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