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贸易与环境问题的国际合作

时间:2022-05-29 百科知识 版权反馈
【摘要】:第五节 贸易与环境问题的国际合作现有的研究表明,在协调和解决贸易与环境问题方面,特别是解决跨境污染和全球性的环境问题方面,应该走国际合作的道路。给定有关国家的国际贸易往来,考察国际贸易对全球环境保护中的“搭便车”行为的影响是有益的。

第五节 贸易与环境问题的国际合作

现有的研究表明,在协调和解决贸易与环境问题方面,特别是解决跨境污染和全球性的环境问题方面,应该走国际合作的道路。

一、国际环境合作

现有文献表明,由于在全球环境保护中存在着难以抑制的来自主权国家的“搭便车”行为,因此,一个由众多国家参与的有效的国际环境公约是很难达成的,因为用来鼓励主权国家积极参与全球环境合作的经济手段十分有限。但如果将国际环境合作与国际贸易方面的问题综合起来考察,那么研究前景是令人鼓舞的,因为当那些协商解决跨国境环境问题的国家彼此之间又是贸易伙伴时,“搭便车”的行为动机便能够得到有效的抑制。也就是说,贸易作为一种手段是可以被用来解决全球环境问题的。

用贸易手段解决环境问题是近年来兴起的一个研究热点。表面上看,贸易似乎与环境问题的解决无关,但实际上跨国境的贸易与跨国境的环境问题有着十分密切的联系。现有的研究显示(124),即便没有任何策略性的贸易政策,如关税和补贴等,国家间的贸易往来也同样能够有效地降低某些国家在全球环境保护中采取“搭便车”行为的动机。

Demsetz(1967)(125)为外部性问题的解决提供了一种权威性阐述。他指出,由公共拥有的资源使用者一般不会为资源管理及其使用达成一个协议,即便合作和减少资源的使用量符合所有使用者的利益。这是因为,即便实现了这种较优状态,那么,每个使用者如果采取“搭便车”行为就能获得比合作情形下更高的收益。按照Demsetz的建议,唯一的解决办法就是实施某种程度上的国家干预。以Demsetz的主张为出发点,Barrett (1999)(126)指出理论上普遍认同的国际合作很难实现的观点是颇有说服力的,国际环境合作具有不稳定和难以维持的特点。需要注意的是,这种观点并不完全,因为尽管国际环境合作很难实现,但国际环境合作的确以某种形式在现实中存在着,而且还会以一种非常正式的形式确定下来,如国际环境公约,且不论他们是否有效。

Barrett(1994(127)、1999)发展了国际合作的一个经济理论,结论是,有关国家就全球环境保护所达成的公约是所谓“自我执行的”(selfenforcing),而且这些国家总会采取“搭便车”的行为。最近的文献显示,越来越多的研究者开始关注国际环境合作以及如何抑制主权国家的“搭便车”行为,而博弈理论的方法正在成为研究这些问题的主要的分析工具。一般认为,保护全球环境的国际合作可以通过各主权国家的参与来实现。即便一些国家参与国际环境合作的意愿不高,全球环境保护行动仍然可以通过部分国家的合作并辅以转移支付等手段来实现。这是由于转移支付可以弥补这些国家履行国际公约时所遭遇的损失,因而转移支付能够吸引那些原先不愿参与国际合作的国家签署协议。Carraro和Siniscalco(1993)(128)集中研究了上述情形中的“搭便车”行为,并允许有关国家就各自所承担的减污目标进行讨价还价。Petrakis和Xepapadeas(1996)(129)进一步在一个不完全信息的框架内展开分析,发现每一个减污目标在国际场合都变得非常难以监督,因此必须建立一种抑制“搭便车”行为动机的机制。

与上述研究思路不同,Barrett(1997(130))认为,有关国家达成的环境公约必须同时具备个体理性和集体理性。给定有关国家的国际贸易往来,考察国际贸易对全球环境保护中的“搭便车”行为的影响是有益的。除去“搭便车”行为以外,决定一个国家参与解决跨国境环境问题的国际合作的因素还有许多,例如,国家间的生产替代、有关国家间的贸易条款的变化等因素都会对一个国家是否参与国际环境合作施加重要影响。因此,仅仅根据国际合作中出现的“搭便车”行为而制定相关对策是一种短视的策略,还应该从贸易等多方面寻找解决问题的途径。沿着这种思路所展开的另一项研究是Merrifield(1988)(131)及Piggott等所做的(1991)(132)。Piggott等人在一个减少碳化物排放的贸易模型中,为上述主张提供了经验分析。Blackhurst和Subramanian(1992)(133)研究了多边的国际合作问题,罗列出通往国际合作路径上的障碍(“搭便车”是主要一个),最后强调贸易政策能够为有关国家参与应对全球环境问题的多边努力提供动机。Barrett (1997(134))建立了一个国际贸易和环境合作的模型,集中讨论了贸易制裁在全球环境保护中的作用。其主要结论为,贸易制裁有助于全球环境质量的改善,因为如果没有贸易制裁,从减少全球污染排放量的角度来看,国际合作仅能产生一种次优的结果。Barrett还讨论了贸易制裁作为一种手段来强化国际环境合作的若干情形,发现贸易制裁在抑制“搭便车”行为的同时还令每个成员国的福利都得到了改善。在一个由两个国家构成的李嘉图模型(Two-Country Ricardian model)中,Hung和Richelle(1997)(135)研究了贸易自由化对公共物品供给(如减污的努力等)和国家福利的影响。他们发现,贸易自由化会提高两国公共物品生产的机会成本,于是与自给自足的情形相比,公共物品的总供给将会减少。他们还证明,在专业分工完全的条件下,如果不考虑贸易条款的影响,那么两国公共物品的总产出将少于考虑到贸易条款影响的情形。

Carraro和Siniscalco(1998)(136)建立了一个简洁的国际环境协议的政治经济学理论,从理论上探讨了减轻“搭便车”行为影响和增加国家福利的种种办法,例如通过建立转移支付、议题关联、威胁和制裁以及多重公约等等机制来实现上述目的。Carraro (1999)(137)具体讨论了消除“搭便车”行为和提高环境公约稳定性的手段,首先是在签字国之间要明确所承担的义务(如减污目标)并作出最低的承诺,同时在参与国际环境合作的“赢家”和“输家”之间建立起相应的财政转移机制即旁支付计划,使得那些处于不利地位的国家即“输家”能够通过内部转移机制从“赢家”处得到适当补偿,以此巩固公约的稳定性。至于“搭便车”行为的抑制,Carraro(1999)给出的解决方案是利用议题关联,就是将一个环境协议与其他非环境协议如贸易或研究与开发等协议挂钩,使得某些国家从履行非环境协议的得益大于其在环境协议中采取“搭便车”行为的获利,于是“搭便车”行为的动机便能够得到有效抑制,环境公约也可得到有效履行。这种机制设计是基于这样一个事实,即一个公约内通常会出现成员国由于利益分享问题而排斥公约外国家的情形,而要使现有公约参与国数目增加,就需要考虑采用议题关联的办法。

二、作为“议题关联”的贸易手段

所谓“议题关联”(Issue Linkage)可以简单定义为影响国际环境公约履行和稳定的一组问题。现在普遍认为,“搭便车”行为可以通过设置议题关联来得到有效抑制。这是因为,现实中的一个国家往往会同时卷入与若干个国家的协商活动之中,而协商的内容既有环境方面的问题,也有其他非环境的问题(如发达国家向欠发达国家的财政援助等)。当这些问题相互交织和冲突时,如果将环境问题与其他非环境问题相互链接起来,那么就有可能使那些在国际环境合作中意愿不高的国家作出适当的让步,从而参加保护全球环境的合作。例如上面所提到的发展中国家参与一项国际环境公约的意愿通常较低,于是从维护全球环境质量的大局出发,发达国家被认为是有责任向发展中国家提供财政援助和技术帮助,以此弥补后者由于采用更高的环境标准所遭遇到的损失和增强后者履行国际义务的能力等。但发达国家这样做的前提是发展中国家签署并履行某项环境公约,采取合作的立场。

议题关联最初是在政治学领域中发展起来的(Sebenius,1983(138))。过去10年在经济学尤其是国际贸易领域得到了广泛的应用,被公认是解决国家间由于某些不对称所引起的利益冲突的有效手段(Charnovitz,1998(139))。Folmer等(1993(140))、Cesar和De Zeeuw(1994)(141)第一次将议题关联的分析理念引入环境经济学领域以解决国家间的差异对国际环境合作的影响。其分析精髓为,假定某些国家在一个问题上赢得利益,而另外一些国家在另一个问题上有利可图,如果将这两个问题连接起来,形成一个所谓的“关联”,那么这两组国家就有可能都采取合作的立场,达成协议,以取得双赢的结果,因为所有国家在这两个问题上都是获益的。关键是要找到并“策略性地”使用各个议题关联,以便激励有关国家参与并巩固现有的国际公约。

在国际环境合作中,最为广泛运用的议题关联就是国际贸易,因为通过国与国之间的贸易往来和相互作用,一个国家的环境保护政策及其意图会策略性地传递到另一个国家,因此,国际贸易会在许多方面对国际环境合作施加影响。国际环境合作绝不是孤立于世界经济和国际政治的,在现实中,环境政策也仅是一个国家诸多政策中的一个方面。如果我们希望对国际环境协议的签署和履行有个正确的理解,就应该对影响国际环境合作的诸多因素尤其政治因素给予足够的注意。

在一个简化的两国模型中,Alpay(2000)(142)证明贸易并不总是损害环境质量,有关国家并不总是不愿采取保护全球环境的行动。即使在国家间没有转移支付,当考虑到与国际环境合作相关的贸易条款时,有关国家仍会选择参与全球环境合作,而不是采取“搭便车”行为。有趣的是,与传统的智慧相反,这种非合作的情形可能优于每个国家都进行合作时的情形。至于政策含义,Alpay归结为,由于忽略了贸易对环境的潜在影响,政府关于全球环境保护政策的评估可能会引起误导。由于不准确的评估,相应的政策也就会出现错误。

总之,当参与国际环境合作的国家彼此之间也是贸易伙伴时,国际环境合作成功的可能性会增大,因为有可能在贸易和环境之间建立一种议题关联。通过与环境相关的贸易条件的设置和改变,贸易活动本身是能够改善全球的环境质量的。在某些情况下,来自贸易制裁的威慑力量还能够抵御“搭便车”行为的损害,起到鼓励更多国家参与全球环境合作的作用。但基于这种考虑而实施的贸易制裁在世界贸易组织内还是一个受到争议的问题,对此问题还需要做进一步的研究。

三、关于建立世界环境组织的问题

在贸易与环境问题的国际合作方面,GATT/WTO对贸易问题的管理为国际社会解决环境问题提供了一个成功的范例。而且,贸易与环境之所以发展不平衡,很大程度上是因为二者在体制上的不平衡。迄今为止,国际上尚没有一个权威的国际环境组织协调全球环境问题,在国际事务中代表环境保护主义者的利益和要求。在贸易与环境问题的处理上,缺乏一个与GATT/WTO相抗衡的国际组织与GATT/WTO共同协调解决贸易与环境问题。虽然现在已经存在很多国际环境组织和多边环境协议,但它们在管理范围、效力和权威性方面都无法与GATT/WTO相抗衡。因此,应成立一个多边的世界环境组织(World Environment Organization,WEO),一方面为各国在环境成本内在化方面进行国际合作提供组织基础,类似于GATT/WTO对国际贸易的管理;另一方面,与WTO共同协调贸易与环境的发展,从而达到各国共同可持续发展的目的;此外,也将GATT/WTO从环境保护主义者的责难和单独解决贸易与环境问题,即在贸易条款中要包含更多的环境内容的压力下解脱出来,使WTO更多地专注于解决贸易本身的问题,增强WTO在贸易方面的权威性。

1999年3月,在日内瓦召开的世界贸易组织贸易与环境研讨会(Symposium on Trade and Environment)上,世界贸易组织前总干事鲁杰罗再次提出建议,主张成立“世界环境组织”(World Environinent Organization,即WEO)。他认为,通过世界贸易组织及其决策程序讨论环境问题并设定相关规则,只能使世界贸易组织的工作负担更为沉重。因此,需要成立一个在法律和组织性质上与世界贸易组织相近的、以规则为导向的多边环境机制——世界环境组织——作为专门负责全球环境(包括贸易与环境)问题的法律和组织基础(143)。但这一建议遭了发展中国家的强烈反对,他们认为联合国环境规划署在某种程度上就是国际环境组织,世界贸易组织应当充分利用现有机制,加强与联合国环境规划署之间的合作,解决当前贸易与环境相互冲突的问题,没有必要再成立一个专门的国际环境组织;同时,世界贸易组织应当把精力更多地放在建立一个更为平等的多边贸易制度方面,以推动发展中国家的贸易增长和经济发展。我们认为,鲁杰罗的建议是有其积极意义的,因为世界贸易组织在处理贸易与环境问题上的确存在着固有的缺陷:第一,世贸组织没有一个成熟的、富有经验的专门机构,也没有一个专门协定;第二,少数发达国家在世贸组织及各种谈判中占主导地位,很难真正贯彻执行联合国环境与发展大会所确立的“共同但有区别的责任”原则;第三,世界贸易组织重在促进贸易的增长,它缺乏处理范围更为广泛的环境与发展问题的管辖权、资格和能力(144)。成立世界环境组织,作为处理贸易与环境的适当的国际机构,将会在很大程度上弥补这些缺陷。

四、小结

国际合作是促进环境成本内在化和解决环境问题(包括贸易与环境)问题的有效途径,特别是对于一些全球性和跨境转移的环境问题更是如此。当参与国际环境合作的国家彼此之间也是贸易伙伴时,国际环境合作成功的可能性会增大,因为有可能在贸易和环境之间建立一种议题关联。从理论上讲,国际合作解决环境问题的最佳形式是成立一个权威性的世界环境组织WEO。在WEO的管辖下,可以全面有效地解决环境退化问题;与WTO合作,可以协调贸易与环境问题。

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【注释】

(1)科斯于1960年发表论文《社会成本问题》,提出用界定产权的方法来解决环境成本外部化和市场失灵的问题,即著名的“科斯定理”。

(2)该案例的具体内容可参考WTO网站。

(3)Levinson,A(1996),“Environmental regulation and manufacturers’location choices:Evidence from the Census of Manufactures”,Journal of Public Economics,62:5-29.

(4)Xing,Y and C. Kolstad(1996),“Environment and Trade:A Review of Theory and Issues”,University of California,Santa Barbara,WP 02/96.

(5)Beghin,John,Potier,M.(1997),“Effects of trade liberalization on the environment in themanufacturing sector,World Economy,20(4),435-456.

(6)Grossman,G.M. and A.B. Krueger(1991).“Environmental Impacts of North American Free Trade Agreement”,NBER Working Paper No. 3914,November.

(7)由于有些环境指标得到改善,而另外一些环境指标恶化,所以有时很难判断净效应如何。

(8)OECD(1994),The Environmental Effects of Trade,Paris,OECD.

(9)Panayotou,T.(2000).”Globalization and the Environment,CIDWorking Paper No.53,2000.

(10)Copeland,B. and S. Taylor(1994).“North-South Trade and the Environment”,Quarterly Journal of Economics,August,pp. 755-87.

(11)有些模型考虑了传统的比较优势的决定因素,也就是劳动力和资本的丰裕程度,得出了与本模型相反的结论。

(12)只有在技术效应正好抵消规模效应的严格的假设条件下,这些结论才会成立。

(13)Copeland,B.,and S. Taylor(1995).“Trade and Transboundary Pollution”,American Economic Review,Vol. 85,pp. 716-37.

(14)在这个模型中,只有在贸易能够消除南方国家和北方国家之间的收入差距的情况下,全球的污染排放才会保持贸易前的水平,而这在现实中是不太可能的。

(15)Chichilnisky,G.(1994).“North-South Trade and the Global Environment”,American Economic Review,September,pp. 851-74.

(16)Dean,J.(1997)“Testing the Impact of Trade Liberalization on the Environment:Theory and Evidence”,Mimeo,1997.

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