历史与地理

历史与地理_沿途导游掌中宝

历史与地理History and Geography

1在中国的文化史上有哪四大发现?

What four great discoveries have been made in the course of Chinese civilization?

In Chinese history，there have been extraordinary breakthrough discoveries that have shed lighton the customs and ways of life of later dynasties．Below are four great discoveries that have greatly influenced the historical understanding of Chinese civilization．

The first discovery occurred towards the end of the period of EmperorWu Di of the Han Dynasty(汉武帝) (c．92 BC)．During this time，many Confucian classics were uncovered，including The Classic of History(《书经》)，The Analects(《论语》)，The Classic of Rites(《礼记》)，The Classic of Filial Duty(《孝经》)，among other important books．These works were written in an ancient pre-Qin-script，and they are called“the Old Script”texts．

The second discovery took place in the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty(265－317) when a large amount of bamboo annalswere unearthed in the tomb of King Xiang Wang of the State ofWei(魏襄王)．There were 75 volumes in total．These annals are commonly referred to as The Bamboo Books of Ji's Tomb(《汲冢竹书》)．

The third discovery are ancient inscriptions on bones or tortoise shells known as the“Tortoise Shell Characters(龟板文字)．”These inscriptions were used for divination during the Shang and Zhou dynasties (1600 BC－256 BC)．Toward the end of the Qing Dynasty(c．1911)，peasants continually found fragments of these bones and shells while ploughing their fields，thinking that these artifactswere in fact“dragon bones”which could be used for medical treatment．Through careful study，scholars came to realize that the symbols engraved on the bones were scripts used before the Qin Dynasty(221 BC－2006 BC)，leading to insight into the socio-political，economical，and cultural aspects of the Shang and Zhou dynasties．

The fourth discovery came about in 1899 with the unearthing of the Dunhuang precious deposits(敦煌宝藏)，previously hidden in the unknown caves of the Dunhuang Grottos．The books totaled 20，000 bound volumes，mostly Buddhist and Daoist scriptures，and al-somany other kinds ofworks of history，poetry，folk literature，local chronicles，medicine and almanac recordings．Unfortunately foreign thieves made off with most of these works causing great loss to China's cultural heritage．

2什么是“九州”?

What is jiuzhou?

Jiuzhou means“the nine states，”the denomination of administrative areas in ancient China．Before the Han Dynasty(206 BC－220 AD)，historians thought that the jiuzhou administrative are as were divided after Yu the Great drained the flood waters and built canals．Until the Eastern Han Dynasty(25－220)，some thought that jiuzhou was divided in the Zhou or Yin Dynasty．The Classic of Documents(《尚书》)says that jiuzhou includes Ji(冀)，Yan(兖)，Qing(青)，Xu(徐)，Yang(扬)，Jing(荆)，Yu(豫)，Liang(梁)and Yong(雍)．

Notes:①denomination名称②administrative行政的

3什么是“郡、县”?

What is jun and xian?

The jun(prefecture，郡)and the xian(county，县) were a system of local administration．During the Spring and Autumn Period(722 BC－476 BC)，the county administration held more power than the prefecture．Throughout the Qin Dynasty(221 BC－206 BC)，however，the prefecture becamemore dominant．When Qin Shihuang，the first Emperor of the Qin Dynasty，founded his empire，he divided the country into more than 36 prefectures．Each prefecture administratively managed several counties．During the Han Dynasty(206 BC－220 AD)，the firstemperor divided his country into 63 prefectures．The size of each prefecturewas smaller than that of the Qin Dynasty．During the Sui and Tang dynasties(581－907)，the name of jun had been replaced by zhou(州) or fu(府)，and since then the county has been under the jurisdiction of the prefecture．

Notes:①administration行政机构②centralized集中的③jurisdiction管辖权

4什么是“国”?

What is guo?

Guo in the Zhou Dynasty(1046 BC－256 BC) refers to the lord state．During the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC－256 BC)，the king distributed territory to his nobility，and each lord or prince set up his state accordingly．With the arrival of the Qin Dynasty(221 BC－206 BC)，the Qin emperor temporarily put an end to the Zhou enfeoffment system(分封制)．Later on in the Western Han Dynasty(1046 BC－771 BC)，guo(the state) and jun(the prefecture) co-existed，of the same territorial size．TheWestern Han(206 BC－25 AD) feudal princesand lordsgoverned the state and prefecture as administrative areas．

Notes:①nobility贵族②enfeoffment赐以封地③temporarily暂时地

5什么是“道”?

What is dao?

The dao(道) refers to an administrative district in ancient China．During the Tang Dynasty(618－907)，the whole empire was divided into 15 daos．The size of each dao was almost the same as that of the zhou(the prefecture，州) of the Han Dynasty(206 BC－220 AD)．Until the beginning of the Northern Song Dynasty (960－1127)，the country was divided into thirteen daos，but soon this system was abolished，replaced instead by the lu(路) system．In the Qing Dynasty (1616－1911)，the dao system was brought back，given more administrative power than the prefecture zhou，butwas still under the control of the province．

Notes:①empire帝国

6什么是“路”?

What is lu?

The lu replaced the dao in the Northern Song Dynasty(960－1127)．Originally 15 lus were set up to levy taxes and transport grains to the capital along rivers or canals．The lu gradually gained regional administrative and military power．Throughout the Southern Song Dynasty(1127－1279)，there were 16 lus，which included Fujian Lu(福建路)，Guangdong Lu(广东路)， Guangxi Lu(广西路)and Hunan Lu(湖南路)．The regional size of each lu was almost the same as that of a province．During the Yuan Dynasty(1206－1368)，lu's size shrank to that of a prefecture．

Notes:①levy征收②transport运输

7什么是“省”?

What is sheng?

Sheng means“province．”How did sheng evolve? Originally sheng referred to the forbidden area where emperors and imperial families resided．Throughout the Wei and Jin dynasties(220－420)，sheng defined one of the departments under the central government．During the Tang Dynasty(618－907)，the central government consisted of three departments: the shang shu sheng(Departmentof State Affairs，尚书省)，zhong shu sheng(the Secretariat，中书省)and men xia sheng(the Chancellery，门下省)．The latter two departments handled the huge flow of governmental documents．In the period of the Yuan Dynasty(1206－1368)，the central governmentwas known as zhong shu sheng(中书省)．Meanwhile the Yuan central government set up its field administrative agencies in lu prefectures．The government agency xing sheng(literally meaning“the field secretariat”，行省)，had state power，representing the central government in local areas．The term xing sheng was later shortened to sheng(province)．

Notes:①secretariat秘书处②chancellery总理(或大臣;大法官)之职

8中国有哪十大风景名胜?

What are the ten m ajor scenic sights in China?

Traditionally there are ten major scenic sights(十大风景名胜)in China that are wellworth making a trip to see: the Great Wall(万里长城)，the Scenery in Guilin(桂林山水)，the West Lake in Hangzhou(杭州西湖)，the Palace Museum in Beijing(北京故宫)，Gardens in Suzhou(苏州园林)，Mt．Huangshan in Anhui(安徽黄山)，the Three Gorges on the Yangtze River(长江三峡)，the Sun Moon Lake in Taiwan(台湾日月潭)，the Imperial Summer Villa in Chengde(承德避暑山庄)and the TerracottaWarriors in Xi'an(西安兵马俑)．

Notes:①scenery风景②terracotta赤陶

9人们对中国的部分景点有哪些赞美之词?

What are some popular sayings praising some of China's scenic sights?

No place under Heaven is as beautiful as Mt．Emei．(峨眉天下秀)

Mt．Qingcheng is commonly known for its solitary tranquility under Heaven．(青城天下幽)

Leshan Giant Buddha，the largest Buddha statue in the world(乐山大佛——天下第一大佛)

Mt．Putuo，the first mountain on the sea(普陀山——海山第一)

The misty rain on the West Lake，famous through ancient dynasties to the present(西湖烟雨誉古今)

The landscape in Guilin，unsurpassed in its beauty(桂林山水甲天下)

Mt．Jiuhuashan，the first mountain in Southeast China(九华山——东南第一山)

The beauty of Mt．Lushan，unmatched in theworld(匡庐奇秀甲天下)

One will not visit any other mountain after having climbed Mt．Huangshan(黄山归来不看岳)

Dongting Lake holds all the waters under Heaven(洞庭天下水)

Mt．Songshan Shaolin Temple，the first Buddhist temple under Heaven(嵩山少林寺——天下第一刹)

Shanhaiguan Pass，the first pass ofmountains and sea under Heaven(山海关——天下第一关)

Baotu Spring(Jet Spring) in Jinan，the first spring under Heaven(济南趵突泉——天下第一泉)

Notes:①unsurpassed卓越的②unmatched无与伦比的

10中国名山的名称是怎样得来的?

What are the origins of the names of famous mountains in China?

Himalayas(喜马拉雅山)

Thismountain range has two names．One name is Himalayas(喜马拉雅山)，which means“Abode of Snow(雪之家)”in Sanskrit．The other is Mt．Qomolangma(珠穆朗玛峰)，which means“Goddess Peak(后妃神女)”in Tibetan．Mt．Tanggula(唐古拉山) refers to“the Mountain on the Plateau(高原上的山)，”and Mt．Gangdise(冈底斯山) to“Master of all Mountains(众山之主)”in Tibetan．

Mt．Huashan(华山)

It is said that during the Taikang Period(280－290)(太康年间)of the Jin Dynasty“a thousand-leafstone-lotus flower(千叶石莲花)grew on Mt．Huashan(华山)．”In ancient Chinese language，hua(华) stands for“flower，”thus giving thismountain its namesake．According to another legend，the mountain is named after its five peaks，and each peak resembles a petal of a flower．

Mt．Emei(峨眉山)

Mt．Emei has four peaks．The first peak(万佛顶，the Ten Thousand Buddha Summit) and the second peak(金顶，the Golden Summit)stand facing each other，resembling emei(娥眉)，the delicate eyebrows of a Chinese woman．

Mt．Lushan(庐山)

Originally known as Mt．Kuangshan(匡山) after the Kuang brothers，who during the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC－256 BC)，secluded themselves there，this mountain was later renamed after the ancient state of Luzi(庐子国) of the Spring and Autumn Period(770 BC－476 BC) whose people used it as a former base．

Mt．Huangshan(黄山)

Mt．Huangshan(黄山) is known in English as the Yellow Mountains．According to legend，the Yellow Emperor(黄帝)(c．3000 BC－c．2100 BC)used to go to thesemountainswhere he would prepare herbalmedicine with famous alchemists of the time．

Notes:①abode住所②plateau高原③namesake同名的人;同名物④alchemist炼金术士

11中国以前有哪些主要朝代?

What are the major dynasties of ancient China?

(1)Shang Dynasty(1550 BC－1030 BC): City states emerge，writing developed and society divided into classesmade up of peasants，merchants，themilitary，scholars and aristocracy．

(2)Zhou Dynasty(1030 BC－256 BC): Feudal states emerge，salt and iron industries developed; wealthy merchant class emerges．Age of Confucius and Daoism．

(3)Qin Dynasty(221 BC－207 BC): Feudal states merged into unified China; uniform legal code created; written language，weights and measures，length of cart axles standardized．

(4)Han Dynasty(206 BC－220 AD): Government becomes feudalistic; civil service instituted to run government; Buddhism introduced from India; Confucianism becomes state religion．

(5)Three Kingdoms，Southern and Northern Dynasties(221－581): Social，political discontent; revolts against feudal government; Buddhism spreads．

(6)Sui Dynasty(581－618): Empire reunified; north and south joined by the Grand Canal．

(7)Tang Dynasty(618－907): Empire continues to expand; trading vessels penetrate Indian Ocean; art，music and scholarship flourish among the rich and ruling classes．

(8)Five Dynasties(907－960): Period of turmoil and short-lived dynasties．

(9)Song Dynasty(960－1127): Northern tribes become serious threat，forcing capital to move south; paper money in use; size and sophistication of cities grow．

(10)Southern Song Dynasty(1127－1279): Song rulersmove south; new dynasty set up in the north．

(11)Yuan Dynasty(1280－1368): Empire reunified under the Yuan; the empire attractsWestern travelers，including Marco Polo; novel published，and opera developed．

(12)Ming and Qing dynasties(1368－1911): The gradual decline of feudalism in ancient China; agriculture and handicraftsmake progress and rudiments of capitalism appears by the end of the Ming; China becomes already a united multi-national country; a large fleet under the command of Zheng He has made seven long ocean voyages over three decades．

12怎样简述中国领土和行政区域?

Will you give us a brief introduction of the Chinese territory and adm inistrative divisions?

China is situated in the eastern partof Asia，on the west coast of the Pacific Ocean．China has a total land area of 9．6 million square kilometers．It stretches from the central line of the main navigation channel of the Heilongjiang River(黑龙江) to the north of Mohe River(漠河)in the north to the Zengmu Reef(曾母暗沙)of the Nansha Islands in the south，and from the Pamirs(帕米尔高原) to the west ofWuqia County(乌恰县)in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in the west to the confluence of the Heilongjiang River(黑龙江) and Wusuli River(乌苏里江)in the east．China is bordered by the Democratic People's Republic of Korea to the east; the People's Republic of Mongolia to the north; Russia to the northeast; Kazakhstan，Kirghizstan，Tajikistan to the northwest; Afghanistan，Pakistan，India，Nepal，Sikkim and Bhutan to the west and southwest; and Myanmar，Laos and Vietnam to the south．

The Chinese mainland is bordered by the Bohai Sea，the Yellow Sea，the East China Sea and the South China Sea in the east and south．Across the East China Sea to the east and the South China Sea to the southeast，are Japan，the Philippines，Malaysia and Brunei．More than 5，000 islands are scattered over China's vast territorial seas，the largest being Taiwan and the next largest，Hainan．

For administrative purposes，China is divided into 23 provinces，5 autonomous regions，4 municipalities directly under the Central Government and 2 special administrative regions．The administrative units under a province or an autonomous region include cities，autonomous prefectures，counties，and autonomous counties．Under a county or autonomous county are township，nationality townships and towns．Beijing is the capital of China．