象征政治理论的意义

与马库斯提出的情智理论一样，西尔斯的象征理论提醒我们情感对于政治行为的重要影响。它告诉我们，选民并不是理性的，根据象征政治理论，选民因政治象征所激起的情感和本能的反应，并不顾及现实和利益的得失。但在对美国所谓民主政治的评判上，他并不如马库斯那样乐观。马库斯认为，理性与情感并不是矛盾的，情感的转移有时为理性思维提供基础。而西尔斯把理性与情感看作是对立的，因此他得出民众不是好的代表的结论。

从实践意义来说，西尔斯让我们认清了美国民主和人权的现状。美国的民主和人权皆存在严重的问题。从民主方面来讲，民众的性情被某些政治精英利用，譬如20世纪50年代的麦卡锡主义、60年代的越南战争，皆是利用美国公众对共产主义的恐惧心理；小布什对阿富汗、伊拉克的战争，利用了人们对恐怖分子的厌恶心理。从人权方面来讲，美国的种族歧视依然严重，这与白人长期以来对黑人的负面情感相关。可以说，西尔斯从理论和实践方面论证了美国民主和人权的不足，也从另一方面揭示民主的制度和理念尽管有其优越性，但不可盲目地效仿，必须根据本国的国情和现实，设计符合各国国情的民主制度。

【注释】

[1]Kathleen M.McGraw，Contributions of the Cognitive Approach to Political Psychology，Political Psychology，Vol.21，No.4，2000，p.808.

[2]Richard R.Lau，Thad A.Brown，David O.Sears，Self-Interest and Civilians’Attitudes Toward the Vietnam War，The Public Opinion Quarterly，Vol.42，No.4，1978，pp.464-483.

[3]David O.Sears，Carl P.Hensler，Leslie K.Speer，Whites’Opposition to“Busing”：Self-Interest or Symbolic Politics?，The American Political Science Review，Vol.73，No.2，1979，pp.369-384.

[4]David O.Sears et al.，Self-Interest vs.Symbolic Politics in Policy Attitudes and Presidential Voting，The American Political Science Review，Vol.74，No.3，1980，pp.670-684.

[5]David O.Sears，The Role of Affect in Symbolic Politics.In James H.Kuklinski ed.，Citizen and Politics：Perspectives from Political Psychology，Cambridge University Press，2001，pp.14-17.

[6]David O.Sears，The Role of Affect in Symbolic Politics.In James H.Kuklinski ed.，Citizen and Politics：Perspectives from Political Psychology，Cambridge University Press，2001，pp.14-17.

[7]David O.Sears，The Role of Affect in Symbolic Politics.In James H.Kuklinski ed.，Citizen and Politics：Perspectives from Political Psychology，Cambridge University Press，2001，pp.14-40.

[8]Paul M.Sniderman，Gretchen C.Crosby，and William G.Howell，The Politics of Race.In David O.Sears，Jim Sidanius，Lawrence Bobo eds.，Racialized Politics：The Debate About Racism in America，The University of Chicago Press，2000，pp.236-279.

[9]David O.Sears，et al.，Race in American Politics：Framing the Debate.In David O.Sears，Jim Sidanius，Lawrence Bobo eds.，Racialized Politics：The Debate About Racism in America，The University of Chicago Press，2000，pp.22-24.

[10]Henri Tajfel，Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations，Ann.Rev.Psychol，Vol.33，1982，pp.23-24.

[11]David O.Sears，et al.，Race in American Politics：Framing the Debate.In David O.Sears，Jim Sidanius，Lawrence Bobo eds.，Racialized Politics：The Debate About Racism in America，The University of Chicago Press，2000，pp.24-25.

[12]Felicia Pratto，et al.，Social Dominance Orientation：A Personality Predicting Social and Political Attitudes，Journal of Personality and Social Psychology，Vol.67，No.4，1994，pp.741-763.

[13]T.W.Adorno，et al.，The Authoritarian Personality，Harper&Brothers Press，1998，pp.229-234.

[14]Bob Altemeyer，The Authoritarian Specter，Harvard University Press，1996，p.45.

[15]John T.Jost，Mahzarin R.Banaji，Brian A.Nosek，A Decade of System Justification Theory：Accumulated Evidence of Conscious and Unconscious Bolstering of the Status Quo，Political Psychology，Vol.25，No.6，2004，pp.881-919.

[16]Richard T.Schaffer，Racial and Ethnic Groups，Upper Saddle River，Pearson Prentice Hall，2008，pp.8-9.

[17]David O.Sears，Sheri Levy，Childhood and Adult Political Development.In David O.Sears.Leonie Huddy.Robert Jervis eds.，Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology，Oxford University Press，2003，p.88.

[18]D.O.Sears&D.R.Kinder，Racial Tensions and Voting in Los Angeles.In W.Z.Hirsch ed.，Los Angeles：Viability and Prospects for Metropolitan Leadership，Praeger，1971，pp.51-88.

[19]P.J.Henry，David O.Sears，The Symbolic Racism 2000 Scale，Political Psychology，Vol.23，No.2，2002，pp.253-283.

[20]DavidO.Sears.etal.，IsIt ReallyRacism?TheOriginsof WhiteAmericans’Opposition to Race-Targeted Policies.In John T.Jost&Jim Sidanius eds.，Political Psychology，Psychology Press，2004，pp.358-378.

[21]Sears在多篇文章中都有类似的论述，具体可参见下列文章：David O.Sears，et al.，Race in AmericanPolitics：FramingtheDebate.InDavidO.Sears，JimSidanius，LawrenceBoboeds.，RacializedPolitics：The Debate About Racism in America，The University of Chicago Press，2000，pp.16-43.

[22]David O.Sears，P.J.Henry，Rich Kosterman，Egalitarian Values and Contemporary Racial Politics.InDavidO.Sears，JimSidanius，LawrenceBoboeds.，RacializedPolitics：TheDebateAboutRacismin America，The University of Chicago Press，2000，pp.75-116.

[23]P.J.Henry，DavidO.Sears，TheSymbolicRacism2000Scale，PoliticalPsychology，Vol.23，No.2，2002，pp.253-283.

[24]David O.Sears，Long-Term Psychological Consequences of Political Events.In Kristen R.Monroe ed.，Political Psychology，Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers，2000，p.252.

[25]David O.Sears，Whiter Political Socialization Research?The Question of Persistence.In Ichilov ed.，Political Socialization，Citizenship Education，and Democracy，Columbia University，1990，p.77.

[26]Davis O.Sears，Nicholas A.Valentino，Politics Matters：Political Events as Catalysts for Preadult Socialization，The American Political Science Review，Vol.91，No.1，1997，pp.45-65.

[27]David O.Sears，Long-Term Psychological Consequences of Political Events.In Kristen R.Monroe ed.，Political Psychology，Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers，2002，pp.254-260.

[28]L.Festinger，A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance，Stanford University Press，1957，pp.1-31.

[29]D.O.Sears，Biased Indoctrination and Selectivity of Exposure to New Information，Sociometry，Vol.28，1965，pp.363-376.

[30]David O.Sears，Carl P.Hensler，Leslie K.Speer，Whites’Opposition to“Busing”：Self-Interest or Symbolic Politics?，The American Political Science Review，Vol.73，No.2，1979，pp.369-384.

[31]David O.Sears，Political Behavior.In Gardner Lindzey，Elliot Aronson eds.，The Handbook of Social Psychology，Addison-Wesley，1969，p.364.

[32]D.O.Sears，The Paradox of de facto Selective Exposure Without Preferences for Supportive Information.In R.P.Abelson，E.Aronson，W.J.McGuire，T.M.Newcomb，M.J.Rosenberg&P.H.Tannenbaum eds.，Theories of Cognitive Consistency：A Sourcebook，Rand McNally，1968，p.783.

[33]David O.Sears，et al.，Race in American Politics：Framing the Debate.In David O.Sears，Jim Sidanius，Lawrence Bobo eds.，Racialized Politics：The Debate About Racism in America，The University of Chicago Press，2000，pp.1-15.

[34]David O.Sears，P.J.Henry，Rich Kosterman，Egalitarian Values and Contemporary Racial Politics.InDavidO.Sears，JimSidanius，LawrenceBoboeds.，RacializedPolitics：TheDebateAboutRacisminAmerica，The University of Chicago Press，2000，pp.75-116.

[35]David O.Sears.Sheri Levy，Childhood and Adult Political Development.In David O.Sears，Leonie Huddy，RobertJerviseds.，OxfordHandbookofPoliticalPsychology，OxfordUniversityPress，2003，pp.60-109.

[36]DavidO.Sears，ExperimentalSocial Psychology，Broader Contexts，and thePoliticsof Multicultralism.In Eugene Borgida，Christopher M.Federico，John L.Sullivan eds.，The Political Psychology of Democratic Citizenship，Oxford University Press，2009，pp.325-343.

[37]Tom R.Tyler，Kenneth A.Rasinski，Eugene Griffin，Alternative Images of the Citizen：Implications for Public Policy，American Psychologist，Vol.41，No.9，1986，pp.970-978.

[38]参见［美］唐斯：《民主的经济理论》，姚洋等译，上海人民出版社，2005年，第33~34页。

[39]David O.Sears，Carl P.Hensler，Leslie K.Speer，Whites’Opposition to“Busing”：Self-Interest or Symbolic Politics?，The American Political Science Review，Vol.73，No.2，1979，pp.369-384.

[40]David O.Sears，et al.，Self-Interest vs.Symbolic Politics in Policy Attitudes and Presidential Voting，The American Political Science Review，Vol.74，No.3，1980，pp.670-684.

[41]Richard R.Lau，Thad A.Brown，David O.Sears，Self-Interest and Civilians’Attitudes Toward the Vietnam War，The Public Opinion Quarterly，Vol.42，No.4，1978，pp.464-483.

[42]David O.Sears，Carl P.Hensler，Leslie K.Speer，Whites’Opposition to“Busing”：Self-Interest or Symbolic Politics?，The American Political Science Review，Vol.73，No.2，1979，pp.369-384；David O.Sears，et al.，Self-Interest vs.Symbolic Politics in Policy Attitudes and Presidential Voting，The American Political Science Review，Vol.74，No.3，1980，pp.670-684；D.O.Sears&C.L.Funk，The Role of Self-Interest in Social and Political Attitudes，Advances in Experimental Social Psychology，Vol.24，1991，pp.1-91.

[43]David O.Sears，et al.，Is It Really Racism?The Origins of White Americans’Opposition to Race-Targeted Policies.In John T.Jost&Jim Sidanius eds.，Political Psychology，Psychology Press，2004，pp.358-378.

[44]David O.Sears，The Role of Affect in Symbolic Politics.In James H.Kuklinski ed.，Citizen and Politics：Perspectives from Political Psychology，Cambridge University Press，2001，pp.14-40；David O.Sears，Long-Term Psychological Consequences of Political Events.In Kristen R.Monroe ed.，Political Psychology，Lawrence Erlbaum Associates，Publishers，2002，pp.249-270.

[45]John B.McConahay，Self-Interest Racial Attitudes as Correlates of Anti-Busing Attitudes in Louisville：Is it The Buses or the Blacks?，The Journal of Politics，Vol.44，No.3，1982，pp.692-720.

[46]Brad T.Gomez，J.Matthew Wilson，Rethinking Symbolic Racism：Evidence of Attribution Bias，The Journal of Politics，Vol.68，No.3，2006，pp.611-625.

[47]有关此方面的论述见P.J.Henry，David O.Sears，The Symbolic Racism 2000 Scale，Political Psychology，Vol.23，No.2，2002，pp.254-255.

[48]W.D.Crano，Vested Interest and Symbolic Politics-Observations and Recommendations：Reply to Sears，Journal of Personality and Social Psychology，Vol.72，1997，pp.497-500；W.D.Crano，Vested Interest，Symbolic Politics，and Attitude-Behavior Consistency，Journal of Personality and Social Psychology，Vol.72，1997，pp.485-491.

[49]Christopher Tarman，David O.Sears，The Conceptualization and Measurement of Symbolic Racism，The Journal of Politics，Vol.67，No.3，2005，pp.731-761；P.J.Henry，David O.Sears，The Symbolic Racism 2000 Scale，Political Psychology，Vol.23，No.2，2002，pp.253-283.

[50]G.E.Marcus，Emotions in Politics，Annu.Rev.Polit，Sci.3，2003，p.227.