通过卫星电视节目提升国家形象

通过卫星电视节目提升国家形象——对韩国阿里郎电视台的个案研究

Satellite Television’s Impact on the Enhancement of a Nation’s Image——A Case Study of Arirang TV

Jinah SEOL

论文摘要：

阿里郎电视台是一家总部设在韩国首尔、用英文向全球播报的卫星电视服务机构。阿里郎电视台1996年由韩国国际广播财团建立,拥有3个独立的频道：阿里郎世界、阿里郎韩国和阿里郎阿拉伯。其业务现今已经扩展到超过188个国家。由于其公共属性,阿里郎电视台的节目类型比较多样化,有新闻、电视剧、教育性节目和纪录片,等等。

尽管时有批评阿里郎电视台对韩国的“有偏见的不真实的”报道,但是大家都同意卫星广播服务直接或间接地提升了韩国和韩国品牌的正面形象。同时,大家也相信它在“韩流”扩散中所起的作用,它迅速增加了韩国对东亚国家影视剧的出口。随之而来的影响是,韩剧树立起的韩国正面形象,促进了韩国产品如电器和电子产品在输出国家销售量的增长。

为了使其影响更为深远,2008年3月开始,阿里郎电视台提供阿拉伯语、中文、西班牙语的字幕,并增加了3门语言：俄语、越南语和印度尼西亚语。它在欧洲、北美、亚洲(除了韩国)、澳洲和太平洋地区的大部分地区都是免费的,并且它的受众认知度在12个主要的全球卫星网中排名第七。

根据以上分析,本文试图考查阿里郎电视台是如何渗入外国受众中,以及它主要的国际化策略。利用国家声誉和国际广播的关系模式,本研究将深入研究国家形象构建过程,即阿里郎电视台对韩国国家形象的构建作用,并且试图确定国家形象的构成特征。阿里郎电视台在单个播出国的影响和现有挑战将通过分析阿里郎电视台媒体接收的二手资料来评估。

关键词：阿里郎电视台　卫星电视　国家形象　国家品牌

l.Transnational Television and Cultural Change

There is a widespread belief among researchers and policy makers that television has the capacity to change attitudes, to transfer technological innovations and information, and to create the social and cultural need for change.The transnational television in the information age has rapidly increased the flow of numerous programs among countries, and at the same time, shifted perceptions of time and space of local audiences.Along with other media and the physical migration of people, transnational television has also enhanced an awareness of each country’s connectedness to the global society.Still, it has sometimes been condemned as a‘cultural invader’that undermines indigenous cultures and harmfully effects young television viewers.Also, the images disseminated by transnational television often stand accused of contributing to a sense of dislocation from the past.

Transnational television is considered both space binding and space dislocating.It impacts upon the spatial dimensions of culture(Butcher, 2003).The accessibility to space, its appropriation and use, the impact of technological power, domination and control of space, and the production of space itself create new cultural experiences and familiarities in a local setting.For instance, transnational television could serve either to draw more tightly the boundaries of familiarity by localizing its contents and creating‘negative others’or to dislocate spaces in the formation through repetition of new, hybrid familiarities to which new identities can adhere.

In reality, cultural spaces created by transnational television tend to differ depending on the different layers of social networks, values and practices, as well as the extent of their connectedness to global flows of capital, technology, ideology, images and people, interacting and informing each other(Appadurai,1997).In this sense, transnational television is an aspect of both global and local cultural spaces, and is capable of impacting on the boundaries of each other with connecting locales and dislocating spaces.

Transnational television, especially international satellite television originating from a particular country, typically is constructed with a diverse programming mandate, constantly flowing with images of people, events, products and its cultural activities.Although it is difficult to make a concrete statement about the impact of transnational television on the process of cultural changes within Asian countries, there are some common evidences of changing consumption patterns and the changing of cultural tastes among the upper income,urban, Asian viewers, and a change in the presentation of local television programming in general.The implication of these changes is that transnational satellite television can lead to a weakening of national identities in the economic and cultural sectors, dislocating cultural spaces while connecting the viewers to a globally or regionally imagined community.

ll.Nation lmage and Overseas Satellite Broadcasting

There has been much research on the characteristics of nation image and nation brand.The concept of nation brand is borrowed from the strategic concept of corporate marketing.It addresses the competition among countries in establishing national competence in the global market via garnering of a favorable nation image.Anholt(2003)argues that an image of a product can be affected by origin of country and thus some brands are reluctant to explicitly reveal their country due to the effects of origin of country.However, the process of image formation is extremely wide and complex as well as highly abstract.It is constructed by impressionistic information rather than by either systematic and aggregated information or by direct experiences in that country(Yeom and Oh, 2003).

Of course, an image of a country can be formed through actual visits or through externally received information from sources such as broadcast, print media and word of mouth(Gunn, 1972).For nation publicity,image formation involves not just creating an awareness of a specific country but also projecting selected images to a particular market or specific audience which would be more receptive to the messages(Gartner, 1997).Image formation of a country also involves the potential of the intervention of influencing factors such as politics, economy, history, immigration, sports, culture, public relations, advertising, and promotional programs.

In this light, we can see that overseas satellite broadcasting can be an effective communication media in helping shape a nation-state’s image.The coverage and viewership of transnational satellite broadcasting services are increasingly expanding across the world due to the rapid developments of satellite and broadcast technologies.Most satellite television services such as CNN(U.S.), BBC World Service(England), TV5(France), DW(Germany), CCTV(China), Arirang TV(Korea) and NHK(Japan) provide viewers with an overabundance of domestic and international issues and events, often competing for accuracy and timeliness in delivering the news.These satellite broadcasting services may have the common goal of promoting international relations among all countries, but being publicly funded, also carry the implicit responsibility to promote the host country abroad for both political and national gains.

According to a Japanese Foreign Ministry’s survey, Arirang TV is ranked as the 7th most televised transnational satellite channel, shown in the 114 countries per< Figure1＞.Norihiro (2007) contends that Arirang TV is exceeding NHK World in terms of viewer ratings in 114 countries because Arirang concentrates on promoting popular Korean dramas and entertainment programs in English along with providing viewers useful information regarding not just Korea but also other Asian countries.

Sources：Norihiro(2007),“Korean International TV：the Role of Arirang”

Overseas satellite television services are fiercely competing to reach beyond the already internationally oriented viewers to those who are still locally oriented in media consumption and cultural activities.Accordingly, their programming is inclined to meet global standards while maintaining local connections, specifically with popular genres such as drama,sports, music, and light entertainment as well as hard news and local-specific information programs.In terms of different languages and cultures of the dispersed viewers, glocalization strategy has often been adopted by the satellite television services, based on the geo-linguistic territory.Arirang TV, with its language and content tailored geographically, is applying these strategies to promote Korea brand and to build a favorable image of Korea throughout the world.

The overseas satellite broadcasting model which helps to enhance nation image focuses on the good relations between the viewer’s involvement with the country and his or her media consumption patterns.As shown in<Figure2＞, the ultimate goal of nation image promotion is to create affinity to a country by the process of building positive and favorable images through media consumption.Involvement characteristics such as country recognition, country visit experience and/or exchange experience greatly affect the processes of the viewers’media consumption and their image formation toward a country.

However, the impact of overseas satellite television differs depending on the objectives of the channels, the characteristics of its contents, and other external factors such as language, culture, religion and ethnicity.It is also influenced by some other factors like pre-knowledge and experiences of individual viewers toward a specific country and their viewing patterns(Yu et.al, 2006).

Source：Yu et al.(2006), Research on the Assessment of Effectiveness of Overseas Broadcasting System, ACNielsen Report, p.7

lll.Globalization Strategy of Arirang TV

Arirang TV established the business base for the first overseas broadcasting channel, Arirang TV World1, in Korea and began its broadcasting in August, 1999.It was the first Korean overseas satellite channel that covered Asia and the Pacific regions, and in September 2000,it successfully established a global network.As of 2001, there were 37 million subscribe- households in 37 countries and Arirang was viewed in 438 hotels in 22 countries(< Table1＞).Since Arirang TVis a free-to-air broadcaster, its potential reception was possible in 165 nations around the world based on the DTH reception standard(Lee, 2002).

Table1 Early Viewership of Arirang TV(Aug.2001)

It was crucial for Arirang TV to prepare a strategic plan for entering the competitive global satellite broadcasting market in the early 2000s.Arirang TV, after scrutinizing its possible market niche and channel positioning, decided on a concept to draw overseas viewers’attention by promoting the best of Korean programs.The main idea for channel positioning was to establish an entertaining but family-oriented channel, and its primary program genres were drama, music shows,informative shows and news.

Over the last decade, when compared to other public or commercial broadcasting services in Korea, Arirang TV has operated its personnel and channels efficiently despite decreased funds.For instance, Arirang readily accepts and uses one-man production systems for things such as news production.Also, to save money, most programs are outsourced, which usually cost less.

Arirang TV established the so-called‘Select and Focus’(选择集中) marketing strategy by region and market development stage.Mainly, it meant that it would analyze different regions based on cultural similarities and focus on the ones with the most potential for growth.Subsequently, the Asia-Pacific region was most highly perceived as a target market, followed by Central America,Europe, North America and Africa.Taking advantage of cultural similarities and focusing on large market growth potential are deemed two key factors in the global marketing strategy of Arirang TV(< Table2＞).

In the case of the Asia-Pacific region, geographical proximity also accounts for its being specifically targeted.In accordance with the‘Select and Focus’marketing plan, Arirang TV rated each nation based on the market attractiveness such as entry potential and restriction for spillover.Through the MSO, wholesale type business is operated in order to attract local resident viewers.Arirang TV also executed push marketing strategy, which focused on SCN(Cable SO, DTH Platform) form and adopted flexible price strategy based on local character.Arirang TV took gradual steps to push its position from a basic channel choice to a premium channel one in Asia, Central America,Eastern Europe and the Middle East.In North America and Western Europe,it is also marketed as a premium channel.It also acquired a joint ownership of SBadvertisement block (Lee, 2002).

Table2　The Key Factors of Arirang TV’s Marketing Strategy

In order to create new audiences, Arirang TVhas developed strategy applications appropriate to regional market situations and emphasized similar culture and lifestyles of the Asian viewers, especially focusing on countries using the Chinese language.Aggressive marketing was often used in the high growth potential region such as Central-South America and Eastern Europe.Channel promotion for those with direct reception access was conducted simultaneously.Marketing for the Middle East and Africa were conducted through personal direct reception(DTH)or local providers.

Shown in< Figure3＞, Arirang TV currently operates three channels：Arirang TV Korea, Arirang TV World,and Arirang TV Arab.Arirang TV World started its service in August of 1999, and first began broadcasting to the Asia-Pacific region.Broadcasting 24 hours a day, Arirang TV World’s broadcasting reach has extended to the entire globe.Intelsat 10, 8, and 2 pick up and transmit Arirang TV World signals to Asia, Oceania, and Africa.IntelSat 9 transmits signals to North and South America, while Hotbird 3/Astra satellites are used to relay signals to Europe.In August of 2004, there was an additional extension of Arirang’s overseas broadcasting area that brought the entire continent of Africa within its reach.

Figure3　Current operations of ArirangTV(Source：KIBF, 2007)

One of the problems Arirang faced was the constraint of broadcasting globally in a single lingua franca(i.e.English), and decided, in August 2004, to take steps toward increasing local accessibility and viewer convenience when it began broadcasting in Arabic for six hours per day (the remaining 18 hours still broadcast in English), aimed at 22 Arab nations.

With regards to channels and programming, the first stage of Arirang TV channel strategy was to operate a foreign-language broadcaster in Korea via cable TV.The second stage was to operate Korean foreign-language channels for overseas broadcast by building an international satellite network.The third stage was to include a variety of supporting businesses to increase the competitiveness in international exchange in TV programs(centered on Asia)along with auxiliary operations on the global level.

In order to fulfill these goals, Arirang TV diversified channel marketing methods.First, it acquired 24 hour fixed block transmission and re-transmission rights through local cable and satellite television providers.Secondly, Arirang TV developed a separate marketing segment for travelers by contracting with 438 local top-class hotels in 22 different countries.Thirdly, Korea related research centers and universities were specially targeted for set-top box installations in their locations.Lastly but most importantly, Arirang TV provided programs to popular local channels like CAN in Singapore, including local language services.

It is noteworthy that Arirang TV’s programming consistently followed a well-tuned business marketing strategy.It has adopted block programming per time period and genre of the programs in order to help promote an image of fun and usefulness of Arirang’s Korean content, keeping clear of negative perceptions, which is often the result of national channel propagandas.With an emphasis on infotainment programs and popular Korean dramas, Arirang TV is positioned to be one of the top channels, preferred by regional television providers and local viewers in Asia.However, it still needs to develop more time-sensitive programs to minimize the lost viewers amidst its vast channel coverage and regional time differences.

Another crucial programming strategy was to avoid politically and religiously incendiary elements and also to deemphasize time dependent materials.Especially, political and religious issues were avoided, issues which often trigger negative sentiment or conflict depending on the viewer’s political beliefs and religious background in a given locality.For example, some state sponsored satellite television channels are condemned as“propaganda tools”because of their role in serving a political and national agenda of the host government.In fact, they are seen as using the satellite technology to expand the boundaries of the nation electronically(Aksoy and Robins, 2000, recited in Chalaby, 2005：161).

In an ever-changing market,it is crucial to strategically adjust the target audience profile and subsequent programming in order to positively influence the viewership and the programming strength.Arirang TV recalibrated its target audiences in accordance with the foreign market survey undertaken on December of 2006.Its current primary target audiences are local opinion leaders and foreigners with extensive dealings with Korea.They are educated men from ages 30 to 60 with high levels of English proficiency and their main interests involve news concerning Korea’s rapid development, along with information on policy, industry, and economy.Another key audience is the group of the so-called‘Hallyu(Korea Wave)’consumers.They are made up mostly of women(ages 20 to 50) and adolescents who are likely to watch popular Korean dramas, movies, latest trends/fashion/lifestyle programs, as well as pop music, showbiz news, games, and other‘entertaining’content.

Regionally, Asia and the Middle East are showing the largest reception pattern.Evenly spread in these regions,the number of contracted local system operators re-transmitting Arirang TVis 378 in 18 different nations.Such success is likely the result of focusing on Asia and the Middle East as a priority marketing region, at the same time, a testament to affinity with the Korean content is received within these culturally similar regions.According to the viewer feedback on Arirang TV’s website and the responses received during the on-location market researches, local viewers’favorable impression and satisfaction of the station content in Philippines,Indonesia,and Mongolia are very high.The viewers in these countries watch mainly Korean dramas and music programs, but also show keen interest in documentaries and various informative programs.For example,after watching a program that introduced Korean goods produced by small and medium sized enterprises, many buyers from overseas showed great feedback and formed numerous business deals.For example, a Korean company experienced a 700％ sales growth since it was introduced on Arirang TV(Arirang TV report, 2008).

Arirang TV was the first to reach into the Northeast Asian regions via India as a stand-alone channel.Having formed a contract with 240 System Operators in India, the station is providing services to 6,700,000 households, which is 22％ of all households with television in India.In Europe, viewership increase in Eastern Europe,including Poland,Bulgaria,Russia, Lithuania, and Belarus, is at about 10％ each month.There are 1.2 million households residing in the above countries through SO arrangement.Arirang TV is so popular in Poland that its program guide is currently placed in a Polish TV magazine, and in Russia, it is garnering attention from Russian magazines as they make a special section for Arirang TV.In October 2001, Arirang TV formed a contract with the Czech Republic and Slovakia, adding on 800,000 households to this region.For the North and South American Region, Arirang TV mainly focuses on the Central portion of South America including Columbia, Guatemala, Paraguay, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Equador, and Peru,by contacting the SOs for retransmission.In October 2001, Arirang TV began providing service through EchoStar to registered viewers in the USand Canada(Lee, 2002).

As a‘glocalization’strategy, adopting local languages was one of the key factors to penetrating the local markets.Most of Arirang TV’s programs are broadcast in English, but some programs on certain time zones provide subtitles or dubbings in Chinese, Spanish, or Korean.Recently, Arabic language broadcasting is also being transmitted through Arirang TV World six hours daily.

Reflecting on the survey of the efficacy of overseas broadcasting, conducted by AC Nielsen Korea in concert with Ewha Woman’s University Communications Laboratory in 2006, Arirang TV drew up a new long-term plan towards becoming a comprehensive infotainment channel globally.The research had also suggested that Arirang TV allot some of its time from strictly entertainment programming to news/current affairs about Korea, while still maintaining Hallyu-inducing contents such as dramas, showbiz news, pop music and sports and its related information.Materials for news programs are acquired from various media sources including on-site reporting materials, Yonhap News, newspapers, broadcasters, and the Internet.Though some difficulties exist in the demarcation of materials from Arirang’s own reporting and those acquired from other sources, even acquired sources remain to be reported on and edited by Arirang’s own staff and resources.Thus,it is safe to categorize all news to be in-house programs.

Table 3　Current programming for overseas broadcast

In summary, it can be said that Arirang owes its success to the globalization programming strategy based on cultural similarities, localization of languages, providing of universally accepted programming format, and a transmission of Korea’s most popular content to its viewers.

lV.Building Nation lmage through Seeking the Loyalty of the Markets

“Connecting Korea to the World”is one of the catch phrases that Arirang global TV advocates.In retrospect, the establishment of Arirang TV was primarily led by the Korean government in order to actively‘market’Korea to the rest of the world.Among those action plans, a necessity of TV broadcasting as a way of improving national image through mass media came to the fore(Arirang TV, 2007).It was assumed that Korea was not only unknown to most other nations but also was shown to be viewed as an unstable country due to the dangerous nuclear issues often promulgated by North Korea in the international news.In fact, foreign news reporting on Korea was mainly concerned with serious issues such as political and social disturbances,and crimes which could only influence the building of negative images about Korea.

The mission of Arirang TV has been quite simple and clear.It aims to“enhance Korea’s international image and promote understanding by the international community in matters concerning Korea.”In its early phase, Arirang TV’s broadcast operations were aimed at local platform businesspeople in Asian countries, with only local Korean residents and foreigners with extensive dealings with Korea as a reliable class of audiences.

Despite being a public broadcaster under a government umbrella, partially funded through public financing, Arirang TV has retained much independence in its broadcasting activities.Yet,its establishment and operation by a semi-independent fund under the control of Korea’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism limits the amount of policy support and funding which are necessary for its overseas PR broadcasting on behalf of the Korean government.Its legal status as an institution under the aegis of a public fund, in turn, hamstrings Arirang TV’s ability to develop a clearly defined model for future corporate health.As of 2007,‘Laws on the Operation of Public Organizations’announced and enacted Arirang TV as a semi-public corporation, giving it responsibility and rights as a public organization while maintaining its independence in broadcasting (Arirang TV report, 2008).

There are some obstacles and challenges for Arirang TV as it attempts to overcome fierce competition from other satellite television services.Although Arirang TV has attained worldwide recognition as a global player representing Asia, it is still regarded as a state sponsored channel, having to promote government interests and its policies, rather than performing a purely cultural role as a foreign-language broadcaster improving Korea’s image abroad.In order to seek the loyalty of the global viewers,it is highly recommended that Arirang TV rid itself of this image and focus on the needs of the local viewers of each market.State-sponsored broadcasters are inclined to be constrained by the national agenda and the necessity of playing identity politics.They are in the market for national allegiances and loyalties(Price, 1994), while, independent broadcasters merely seek the loyalty of the market.Subsequently, independent and commercial satellite television services can grab bigger audience shares because they adapt more easily to local conditions and operate with higher broadcasting standards(Chalaby, 2005).

This would be a basis that allows Arirang TV to secure one hundred million subscribers overseas, which would mean a shift from the current strategic focus on the entire globe to pursuing concurrent specialization toward viewers’needs in different regions or continents.In other words, a multi-territory broadcaster like Arirang TV needs to concentrate on key markets while considering a country-by-country development plan that is sensitive to local viewers’interests and tastes.Arirang TV has already implemented a language-specific plan which provides channels in Russian, Spanish, Chinese, and Hindi language to meet new demands arising from Hallyu’s march west across the Asian continent.This entails cooperation with satellite service providers or platform operators in each country or continent with the most number of subscribers(Arirang TV report, 2008).Moreover, a clear and distinguished programming strategy, which contains both Koreaspecific content and universally attractive programs, would be vital if Arirang TV is to maintain its competitive edge.

Nation brand is closely interconnected with nation image, and it actually affects creating and building diverse images of a nation-state both positively and negatively.In reality, as marketing research results show, a positive nation image can influence overseas consumers to highly evaluate and purchase the products and services of that nation.Thus, it is important to engender positive attitudes and preferences among global Arirang TV viewers toward Korea through provision of highly regarded Korean programming in drama, sitcom, news, informational and music shows.Even though the exported Korean programs played a major role in triggering the current‘Hallyu (Korea Wave)’in Southeast Asia and China and thus, enhanced Korea’s image,it is obvious that the Korean content that Arirang TV network provided throughout Asia also greatly contributed.

There remain some difficulties for Arirang, perhaps because of its growth, specifically as it tries to overcome difficulties in choosing programs suited to an increasingly diverse audience.Also, due to increased program costs from network program providers coupled with the nature of limited funds of a semi-public entity, Arirang’s inability to acquire popular domestic programs may get exacerbated.Moreover, copyright disputes over Arirang TV’s programs still remain, such as music and drama copyrights.Even though the domestic copyrights may have been acquired, international copyright issues may be raised due to unforeseen events, such as media convergence and diversification.Of course, Arirang TV, as a public channel funded by the Korean government exists not to generate profit but to promote Korea and enhance Korea’s image over the globe.Nevertheless,it is recommended that Arirang TV prepares itself for solid financial footing in order to solve these challenges and problems so that it may further its worthy mission.Such activities undertaken properly will no doubt lead to positive effects in Korea’s foreign relations, economy, trade, and social/cultural exchange.

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〔Jinah SEOL,Associate Professor, Department of Media Arts& Sciences, Korea National Open University,Korea〕