基本知识点解析

时间：2022-02-18 理论教育版权反馈

【摘要】：按可数性，不可数性来分又可分为可数名词和不可数名词。不可数名词所表示的事物一般不能用数来计算，没有词形变化，这类词主要为抽象名词和物质名词。不可数名词前常用much, little，a little, a bit of, much, a great deal of, a large amount of, a lot of等来修饰。其中a lot of既可修饰可数名词又可修饰不可数名词。在强调整体时以单数对待，在强调集体之中的个体时以复数对待。其中不定代词的掌握和运用是英语考试的重点。

第二节　基本知识点解析

一、名词（Noun）

名词是用来表示人、事物、地点、现象及其他抽象概念等名称的词。名词可分为两类：专有名词和普通名词。按可数性，不可数性来分又可分为可数名词和不可数名词。

(一)可数名数与不可数名词

可数名词所表示的人或事物是可以用数来计算的，有单、复数形式。不可数名词所表示的事物一般不能用数来计算，没有词形变化，这类词主要为抽象名词和物质名词。

1．掌握常考的不可数名词

news water tea hope work knowledge age

advice courage gold hair money bread dust food

2．掌握不可数名词的修饰语

不可数名词前常用much, little，a little, a bit of, much, a great deal of, a large amount of, a lot of等来修饰。其中a lot of既可修饰可数名词又可修饰不可数名词。

（二）可数名词的不规则复数形式

1．词形本身的不规则变化

foot-feet脚　　　　mouse-mice鼠　　　　man-men男人　　　　woman-women女人　　　　tooth-teeth牙齿　　　　child-children孩子

2.有些名词的单复数形式相同，需要根据上下文的意义来确定其单复数含义

fish鱼　　　　means方法　　　　　deer鹿　　　　works作品　　　　species物种　　　　Chinese中国人

3．集体名词的单复数

大多数集体名词，既可看做单数，也可看做复数。在强调整体时以单数对待，在强调集体之中的个体时以复数对待。例如：

family家庭　　　　　group小组　　　　team团队　　　　police警察

crew全体成员　　community团体　　　　audience观众

navy海军　　　　flock鸟群　　　　cattle牛

4．合成名词的单复数变化形式

（1）将主体名词变成复数

father-in-law-fathers-in-law岳父　　　　passer-by-passers-by过路人

editor-in-chief-editors-in-chief主编

（2）无主体名词构成的复合词，在词尾加-s

grown-up-grown-ups成年人　　　　go-between-go betweens中间人

look-out-look outs守望者

（三）名词作定语

1．名词充当前置修饰语时，通常用单数形式。例如：

school gate校门　　　　evening school夜校　　　　flower show花展

2．man, woman用于名词前作定语时，其单复数形式与所修饰的名词的单复数形式一致。例如：woman driver-women drivers　　　　女老师

man worker-men workers　男工人

3.只有复数形式而没有单数形式的名词,以及用于某一意义时习惯上要用复数形式的名词,用作定语时只能用复数形式。例如：

good train货车　　　　customs office海关人员　　　　sales plan销售计划

（四）名词所有格应注意的问题

1．表示人或有生命东西的名词的所属关系、用途一般在名词后加“-s”或“’s”；所有者为无生命的事物时，最好用“of+名词”结构。

Mike's pen迈克的钢笔the boy's mother男孩的母亲

the name of the book书名　　　　a picture of flowers花的照片

此外，表示时间、距离、重量和价值用“-s”或“’s”表示所有格。

today's paper今天的报纸a week's time一周的时间

one dollar's worth一美元的价值

2．表示两者或两者以上共同所有，把“'s”加在最后一个名词下；表示分别所有时，各自加“-’s”。

Lucy and Lily's friend露西和莉莉共同的朋友

Tom's and Jack's room汤姆和杰克的房间（两人各自的房间）

3．名词双重所有格

“of+'s所有格”修饰前面的名词，这种结构叫做名词双重所有格，表示其中之一。

a friend of her mother's她母亲的一位朋友（强调她母亲朋友中的一位）

a picture of his brother's他弟弟的一张照片（强调是他弟弟众多照片中的一张）

二、代词（Pronoun）

代词是用代替名词并起名词作用的词。代词按意义、特征及语法功能可分为下面几类：人称代词(I, him , you)、物主代词(my, your, his)、反身代词(myself, yourself, itself)、相互代词(each other, one another)、指示代词(this, that)、不定代词(anything, other, either, each,)、疑问代词(what, who, which)。其中不定代词的掌握和运用是英语考试的重点。常见不定代词的用法：

（一）all和both

1.both表示“两者都”，all指“三者或三者以上的全体，在句中可作主语、宾语和同位语，用作形容词时还可作定语，如：

Both of the students are fifteen. 这两名学生都是15岁。（作主语）

All but one are present. 除一个外，其他人都到了。（作主语）

Both plans are good.两个计划都是好的。

All men are equal.所有的人都是平等的。

2.all除指人外，还可指物，表示“所有，一切”，作主语时，谓语动词用单数，如：

All is over with him. 他一切都完了。（指情况）

3.both和all同否定词连用，表示部分否定。

Both of them are not singers. 他们俩不都是歌手。

Not all books are good. 不是所有的书都是好书。

（二）each和every

1.each表示“每个，各，各自的”，强调个体；every强调整体，表示“每个都”。

2.each指两者中的每一个；every指三者或三者以上的人或事物中的每一个。

例如：Each room, can seat at least fifty people.每个房间至少能坐50人。

Everyone has strong and weak points.每个人都有优缺点。

Each of the students will get a new book.每个学生将得到一本新书。

3.every可以表示“每隔”，构成“every+数词+复数名词”的结构；each没有这种用法。

every other day（每隔一天）， every ten miles (每隔十英里)， every four years（每四年）

（三）either和neither

Either指“两个人或物中的任何一个”，表示肯定意义；neither指“两个人或物中一个也不，两者都不”，表示否定意义。“either…or…”和“neither…nor…”为常用词组结构。

Either he or I am to blame. 或者他或者我将受到责备。

（四）some和any的用法

1.some和any均表示“一些”，既可修饰可数名词，也可代替或修饰不可数名词；some一般用于肯定句中，any多用于疑问句、否定句和条件句中；some和any可用作名词（作主语和宾语），也可用作形容词（作定语）。如：

Some of the students will go to Shanghai tomorrow.

明天有些学生将去上海。（作主语）

There isn’t any time left.没时间了。（作定语）

Is there any water left? 还有水吗？

2.some也可用于疑问句，表示说话人希望得到肯定的回答或表示请求、建议，如：

May I have some water? 我可以喝些水吗？（请求，期待给予肯定回答）

（五）few和little的用法

1.few和little均表示数量，但用法及表达意义有所不同，如下表所示：

修饰可数名词修饰不可数名词肯定意义a few a little否定意义few little Few of the books are for children. 这些书中几乎没有合适孩子们的。

There’s a little water in the bottle. 瓶里有点水。

三、数词（Numeral）

数词是表示数目多少或顺序先后的词。数词分为两种：基数词和序数词。表示人或事物数量多少的数词叫基数词，如one, two, three; 表示人或事物的顺序的数词叫序数词，如first, second, third等。

（一）基数词及其主要用法

1．基数词表示人或事物的数量，表示具体数字时，只用单数形式；在某些概数的习语中表示“成百上千”等要加“s”。如：

one hundred and seventy-eight apples 178个苹果

nine hundred and eight universities 908所大学

hundreds of birds数百只鸟

millions of people数百万的人

（二）序数词的用法

1．一般情况下，序数词前要加定冠词the，如：

Monday is the second day of a week. 周一是每周的第二天。

This is her third visit to Japan, isn’t it? 这是她第3次访问日本，是吗？

2．序数词可以用来表示日期和世纪，例如：

August the fifth/ the fifth of August（8月5日）

the twenty-first century 21世纪

（三）分数词及其主要用法

分数构成的总原则为：分子用基数词，分母用序数词，中间用连字符连接。

1．分子为1的分数，分子用基数词，分母用序数词，如：

13one-third14one-fourth

2．分子大于1的分数，表示分母的序数词要加s。

79seven-ninths23two-thirds

四、冠词（Article）

冠词是一种虚词，放在名词的前面，帮助说明名词的含义。冠词分定冠词和不定冠词两类。

（一）不定冠词的基本用法

不定冠词有a和an两种。a用在以辅音音素开头的单词前，an用在以元音音素开头的单词前。

1．用于可数名词的单数形式前，指人或事物的某一类

Kate is a student. 凯特是个学生（而不是工人或其他）

A student must love his teachers. 学生应当热爱他的老师。

2．指某人或某物，但不具体说明人或物

A girl is looking for Lucy. 一个女孩在找露西。

He works in a factory. 他在一家工厂上班。

3．表示“一”这个数量，但数的概念没有one强烈

She will be back in a day or two. 她过一两天就回来。

4．用于首次提到的，一方不知道的人或物

There is a man swimming in the river.有个男人在河里游泳。

5．其他固定搭配

have a cold have a good time in a hurry once in while

at a loss once in a while all of a sudden tell a lie make a face

(二)定冠词的基本用法

1．特指某（些）人或某（些）事物

Show me the photo of the boy. 给我看看那个男孩的照片。

The book on the desk is mine. 书桌上的那本书是我的。

2．指双方都知道的人或事物

Where are the new books, Jim? 吉姆，那些新书在哪里？

They are one the small table.在小桌子上。

3．指上文提过的人或事物

Li Wei lives on a farm. The farm is not big. 李伟住在农场，那农场不大。

4．用在世界上独一无二的事物前

The sun is bigger than the moon. 太阳比月亮大。

the universe宇宙

5．定冠词与形容词连用，代表一类人或事物

the dead死者the deaf聋人the blind盲人

the young年轻人 the old老年人

6．用在西洋乐器名称前，而中国民族乐器前不用冠词。音乐前也不用冠词

She can play the piano. 她会弹钢琴。

I’m learning the violin. 我在学小提琴。

play Erhu拉二胡

7．用在江河、海洋、湖泊等地理名称前

the Yellow River黄河the Pacific Ocean太平洋

8．关于定冠词的一些固定搭配

in the morning在早晨 in the end最后 on the whole总之

on the right在右边

all the year round全年 at the same time同时 at the least至少

（三）不加冠词的规则

1．专有名词前一般不加冠词

China, American, Bill Smith

2．一些抽象的不可数名词前不加冠词

Life is short; art is long. 生命短暂，艺术长存。

Time waits for no man. 时不待人。

3．季节、月份、星期和节日的名词前

It is Sunday today. 今天是星期日。

June 1st is Children’s Day in China. 在中国6月1日是儿童节。

4．在语言、学科、三餐、球类等名词前不加冠词

Miss Smith can’t speak Chinese. 史密斯小姐不会说汉语。

Maths is hard to learn.数学不容易学。

5．有些固定词组中的名词前不加冠词

knife and fork刀叉　faterh and son父子　day by day一天又一天

at homed在家　at night在晚上　on purpose故意

by accident偶然　catch fire着火　come to power执政

give birth to生（孩子）

五、动词

动词是构成英语句子的核心，它是英语语法最重要的一部分。根据动词本身的用法，可以把动词分为实义动词、连系动词、情态动词、助动词。其中实义动词又称行为动词，根据其在句子中是否跟宾语可分为两类：及物动词和不及物动词。

（一）动词的五种基本形式

动词的五种基本形式包括原形、现在式第三人称单数（以下简称为“单三”）、过去式、过去分词、现在分词。其基本变化规则如下表所示：

构成方法原形

(现在式)单三形式过去式过去

分词现在

分词一般在词尾加s，ed或ingwork

talk works

talks worked

talked worked

talked working

talking以e结尾的加s,d或去e加ing live

hope lives

hopes lived

hoped lived

hoped living

hoping以“辅音字母+y”结尾的，把y变i，再加es,ed或直接加ing study

worry

try studies

worries

tries studied

worried

tried studied

worried

tried studying

worrying

trying以单辅音结尾的重读闭音节，双写该辅音再加ed，ing，单三形式直接加sstop

plan stops

plans stopped

planned stopped

planned stopping

planning以r结尾的重读音节，重复r后再加ed,ing,单三直接加spreferpreferspreferredpreferredpreferring以l结尾的有时要重复后再加ed,ing，单三形式直接加straveltravelstravelledtravelledtravelling（二）连系动词

连系动词（即系动词）用于连接主语和表语，说明主语的状态，性质，特征或身份。表语通常由名词、形容词，或相当于名词或形容词的词或短语等充当，说明主语是什么或怎么样。

常见的系动词是be,它的变化形式为：am/is/are/was/were. 除了be动词,其他的系动词（半系动词）大致可分为四类：

1．“感觉”类:与五种感觉器官相关的动词.常见的有:look(看起来)， feel(摸上去)，smell(闻起来), taste(尝起来)，sound(听起来)等。例如:

What he says sounds (like)a good idea.

Those oranges taste good.

She looks much younger in her red dress.

2．“主观判断”类: 包括seem(似乎是)，appear(似乎、显得)，prove(证明是), turn out (结果是, 证明是)等.例如:

He appears/seem to be very friendly with us.

They appear/seem to have misunderstood me.

It appears/seem that she will win.

3．“状态变化”类: 表示主语从一种状态变化成另一种状态。

常见的有: become, turn, grow, go, come, fall, get等。例如：

Put the fish in the fridge, or it will go bad in hot weather.

4．“状态持续”类:表示主语持续某种状态。常见的有: remain(依然)，keep(保持)，stay(保持)，lie (呈…状态,置于), continue(继续、仍旧)等。例如:

Why don't you put the meat in the fridge?

It will stay fresh for several days.

The population growth in China remains a problem.

The book lay open on the desk.

连系动词常用的语法结构有：

（1）连系动词+形容词（这种结构最多）

常用的连系动词有be, become, feel, get, go, grow, look, prove, remain, sound, smell, trun, taste等。例如：

His English is excellent. 他的英语很棒。

The rose smells sweet. 玫瑰闻起来很香

The milk tastes sour. 这牛奶有酸味。

（2）连系动词+名词

常用的连系动词有：be, become, appear, prove, remain, seem, turn等。例如

He is a famous poet. 他是著名诗人。

He always kep silent at the meeting. 他开会时总保持沉默。

This matter rests a mystery. 此事仍是一个谜。

(3)连系动词+介词短语

She seemed in high spirits. 她似乎情绪很高。

He is with his friends. 他和朋友在一起。

（4）连系动词+不定式短语

连系动词be后根据情况可自由地接不定式作表语：

My dream is to be a scientist. 我的梦想是当一名科学家。

All I could do was to wait. 我只能等。

My plan was to go from London to Paris. 我计划从伦敦去巴黎。

I was to have seen Mr Kay. 我本要去见凯先生的。

Seem, appear, prove, continue, turn out, get, grow, come等连系动词后也可接不定式(尤其是to be)作表语：She always seems to be sad. 她常常显得很忧伤。

My advice proved to be wrong. 我的意见证明是错的。

She appears to have many friends. 他好像有很多朋友。

The weather turned out to be fine. 天气结果很好。

Circumstances continue to be favorable. 情况仍然是有利的。

He has grown to like studying English. 他渐渐喜欢学英语了。

(三)及物动词和不及物动词

1．及物动词一般情况下都可以加宾语，常用的及物动词有：

believe　　　　buy　　　　carry　　　　catch　　　　demand do take

fill　　　　free　　　　like　　　　love　　　　report　　　　sell　contact

Let's take a rest. 咱们休息一会。

The story can’t interest the children. 这个故事并不能使孩子们感到有趣。

2．有些及物动词后可跟双宾语，这类动词有：advice, give, offer, pay, sell, tell, take, show等。

Please give me the book. 请把那本书给我。

Can you lend me your bike? 你能把自行车借我用用吗？

3．不及物动词一般情况下都不可以加宾语，常见的不及物动词有：live, cry, smile, wait, fall, rise, want等。

Don’t cry any more.不要再哭了。

I want to sleep. 我想要睡觉了。

4．有时不及物动词和介词一起使用，这时后面可跟宾语。常见的结构有：

belong to　　　　believe in　　　　insist on　　　　lead to listen to　　　　cling to

Listen to the teacher carefully. Boys and girls. 同学们，认真听老师讲课。

We should rely on ourselves. 我们应当依靠自己。

(四)情态动词

情态动词表示说话人的语气和情态，如需要、可能、愿意和怀疑等，有一定的词义，但不完整，必须和主要动词的原形一起构成谓语，常见的情态有：can, could, may, might, must, have to, ought to, need, dare, shall, will, should。

以下是几组易混淆的情态动词的用法：

1．can和could的用法

(1)表示能力，如：

My mother can use the computer now. 我妈妈现在会用电脑。

（2）表示许可（多用于口语），如：

Can I go now? 我现在可以走了吗？

(3)表示请求，如：

在表达请求时，could和can没有时间上的差别，could的语气较委婉客气些，但是回答时均有can，如：

Could I borrow your pen? 我能借用一下你的钢笔吗？

Yes, you can. 是的，你可以。

No, I'm afraid not. 不，恐怕不行。

（4）表示推测，强调“客观可能性”，多用于疑问句和否定句中，情态动词后可用进行时或完成时，如：

Who can be he? 他会是谁？

He can't have gone there alone. 他不会独自去那里。

（5）can和could还可以用来表示能力，相当于be able to。一般用于一般现在时和一般过去时两种情况。

No one can/is able to do it. 没有人能够做这件事。

（6）can和could的区别

could是can的过去式，could可用于虚拟语气，但can不可，回答允许时，一般不用could而用can,如：

He can use the computer now, but he couldn't use it two years ago.

他现在会用电脑，但两年前不会。

How I wish I could fly into the sky! 我多么希望我能飞上天空。

Could I ask you a question? 我能问你一个问题吗？

Yes, of course you can. 当然能。

2．may和might的用法

（1）表示许可，有“可以”的意思，有时可以与can互换，如：

You may go now. 你现在可以走了。

（2）表示推测，有“或许，可能”的意思，只用在陈述句中，如：

It may rain tomorrow. 明天可能会下雨。

（3）may可以用于祈使句中，表示祝愿，如：

May we never forget each other. 愿我们彼此永不相忘。

（4）在疑问句中表示“可能”时，通常不用may，而用can, be likely, do you think等表示，如：

Is he likely to help me? 他会帮助我吗？

3．must和have to的用法

（1）表示“必须”时，must表示说话人的主观看法；have to表示客观需要，如：

I don't like to stay here any longer, I must leave now. 我不想再待在这里了，我必须离开。

It's too late, I have to leave now. 天已黑了，我不得不离开了。

（2）must可作“偏偏，硬要”解，指令人不愉快的事情，如：

Why must it rain on Sunday? 怎么偏偏星期天下雨？

（3）must还可表示必然的后果，如：

All men must die. 人固有一死。

（4）have to的否定及疑问形式通常借助于助动词do来表达，也可以把have看作助动词，如：

Do you have to go now? 你现在一定要走吗？

He doesn't have to be in such a hurry. 他不必这么匆忙。

（5）must意为“必要”时，否定时needn't，也可用don't have to，如：

Must I finish my homework now? 我必须现在就完成作业吗？

Yes, you must. 是的，你必须。

No, you needn't. 不，你不必。

You don't have to be back by 10 o'clock.

must意为“不应该”，“不许可”时，否定形式为must not/mustn't，如：

You mustn't smoke. 你不许抽烟。

（6）表示对现在正在发生或将来会发生的事情的推测，谓语动词用“must + be + 现在分词”，如：

It must be raining outside. 外面一定在下雨。

4．need和dare的用法

need和dare既可作实义动词，又可作情态动词。

（1）need作情态动词主要用于疑问句、否定句，否定式为needn't；作实义动词有人称、数、时态的变化，肯定式为need to do，否定式为don't need to do,如：

Need you go soon? 你需要马上走吗？(作情态动词)

We needn't hurry. 我们不需要着急。（作情态动词）

Does he need to know it? 他需要知道这个吗？(作实义动词)

He needs to finish his homework first. 他需要先完成他的作业。（作实义动词）

（2）dare作情态动词，直接跟动词原形；作实义动词时，在肯定句中，dare后面通常接带to的不定式，在否定的疑问句中，dare后面可接带to或不带to的不定式，如：

Dare you jump off the high wall? 你敢跳下这堵高墙吗？（作情态动词）

（3）“need not + 动词完成式”和“did not need to +动词原形”

“need not + have + 过去分词”，表示过去不必做某事而实际上做了，“did not need to+动词原形”，表示过去不必做某事而实际上也没做，如：

She need not have come yesterday. 她昨天本不必来的。（但却来了）

She didn't need to come yesterday. 她昨天不必来。（实际上也没来）

5．used to和would

（1）在表示过去重复的习惯时，used to可用would代替，如：

He would take a walk near the forest in the evening. 他晚间常在森林附近散步。

He used to take a walk near the forest in the evening. 以前，他晚间常在森林附近散步。

（2）used to强调过去的行为同现在的对比，含有“过去怎样，而现在却不这样了”的含义；而would则单纯表示过去的习惯性动作，常与often, every day等连用，如：

He used to be a very strong man. 他以前是一个身体强壮的人。

We would sit in the yard every evening and listen to his story. 我们每天晚上坐在院子里，听他的故事。

(五)助动词

助动词本身无词汇意义或意义不完全，不能单独作谓语。它常配合主要动词，协助构成否定句、疑问句, 强调句、时态、语态等语法形式。助动词协助主要动词完成以下功能，可以用来：最常用的助动词有：be, have, do, shall, will, should, would。

1．表示时态例如：

He is singing.　他在唱歌。

He has got married.　他已结婚。

2．表示语态　例如：

He was sent to England.　他被派往英国。

3．构成疑问句　例如：

Do you like college life?　你喜欢大学生活吗？

Did you study english before you came here? 你来这儿之前学过英语吗？

4．与否定副词not合用，构成否定句　例如：

I don't like him 我不喜欢他。

5．加强语气　例如：

Do come to the party tomorrow evening. 明天晚上一定来参加晚会。

He did know that. 他的确知道那件事。

六、介词和介词短语

介词又叫前置词，是一种虚词，介词不能单独做句子成分，必须与它后的名词或代词构成介词短语，才能在句子中充当一个成分。

（一）介词的分类

简单介词，即指单个的介词，如：at, in, on, besides, since, for。

合成介词，由两个简单介词合成的，如：inside, out of, without。

短语介词，指一个或两个简单介词和一个或几个其他种类的词构成的固定短语，其作用相当于一个介词，如according to, ahead of, because of, by means of, instead of等。

（二）介词的基本用法

1．与名词或代词连用

介词与其后的名词或代词介词短语，在句子中作定语、状语、表语、宾语补足语。

The key to the door is missing. 这扇门的钥匙丢了。（作定语）

Marx stayed in Belgium for some time and then went to France.

马克思在比利时待了一段时间，然后去了法国。（作状语）

The book is on the desk. 那本书在书桌上。（作表语）

Make yourself at home. 请自便。（作宾语补足语）

2．与动词或形容词连用

与其前面的动词或形容词构成动词短语，后面要有宾语，如：

Look at me, please. 请看着我。

Li Lei's parents worried about him because he didn't come home for the whole night.

李雷的父母非常担心，因为他一夜没回家。

（三）常用介词

1．about

(1)表示地点：在……周围；在各处；在……附近。例如：

We took the foreign guests about the campus. 我们带领外宾在校园里各处看看。

There is a crowd of people about him. 一群人围着他。

I dropped the key somewhere about here. 我的钥匙丢在这儿附近了。

The children leave their toys about the room. 孩子们把玩具扔得满屋子到处都是。

(2)表示时间：大约……；近于……时刻前后。例如：

We left there about six o'clock. 我大约在六点左右离开那个地方。

About when will the dinner be ready? 大约何时能把饭准备好？

(3)表示客体关系：对于；关于；有关。例如：

I must see him, I've heard so much about him. 我必须要见他，我听到很多关于他的事情。

What do you know about China? 关于中国你知道些啥？

What's he so happy about? 他为何这样高兴？

2．above

（1）．表示位置，职位，数量，年龄等：在……上方；在……之上；超过……例如：

Henry's work is well above the average.　亨利的功课大大超过一般水平。

A bird is flying above the woods.　一只鸟在树林上飞。

The portrait is above the blackboard.　一幅肖像挂在黑板的上方。

It weighs above five tons. 　这东西有5吨多重。

（2）引申意义：（品质，行为，能力等）超过；超出……之外；因……（太困难，太好等）而不……例如：

The problem is above me.　这个问题太难，我不懂。

He is above doing such things. 他不至于做这样的事情。

He is a man above personal interests. 他是一个不考虑自己个人利益的人。

John is above all the other boys in his class. 约翰的学习成绩超过班上其他的男生。

If you want to learn , you mustn't be above asking questions.

你要想学习，就不能耻于发问。

3．across

（1）表示动作方向，位置：横过；穿过。（在表面）例如：

The boy helped the old lady across the street.　男孩扶老大娘穿过马路。

The tree had fallen down across the railway line.　树倒啦，横在铁路上。

（2）表示地点：在对面；在……的另一边。例如：

The church is across the river. 教堂在河的对面。

Brown's house is just across the road from us.　布郎的家就在马路的对面。

（3）表示时间：经过（整个一段时间）。例如：

The revolution developed across the whole century.　这场革命整整经历了一百年。

The scientific achievements across the 19th century exceeded those of preceeding centuries

整个十九世纪的科学成就超过以前所有世纪的总和。

4．after

（1）表示时间或位置：在……之后。例如：

Please line up one after another.　　请一个挨一个排好队。

Don't work immediately after a meal.　不要一吃完饭，就马上工作。

Shut the door after you. 随手关门！

（2）引伸意义：仿照；按照。例如：

Please make sentences after the model.　　请照示例造句。

Most parents prefer to call their daughter after flowers.

很多家长喜欢用花的名称为自己的女儿取名。

（3）引伸意义：追求。例如：

1）Who is he after?　他追求谁？

2)What are you after? 　你寻找啥？

5．against

（1）表示位置：依着；紧靠；撞击；碰着。例如：

He rested his bike against the wall.　他把自行车靠在墙上。

The rain was beating against the windows. 　雨敲打着窗户。

（2）引伸意义：反对；禁止。例如：

Are you for it or against it ? 你是赞成还是反对？

Is there a law in this country against spitting right and left?

你们国家有没有反对随地吐痰的规定？

He is against this proposal. 他反对这个提议。

（3）引伸意义：违背。例如：

In the old days many girls were married their own will.

在过去，许多姑娘们违背自己的意愿嫁人。

（4）引伸意义：防备；准备。例如：

We must get prepared against war.　我们必须备战。

They save fire wood against the winter. 　他们储存木材过冬。

6．along

表示动作方向，位置：顺着；沿着。例如：

They walked along the river. 他们沿着河走。

7．at

（1）表示时间：在……时刻；在……点钟；在……岁（时）例如：

I will see you at school at nine tomorrow. 　我明天九点在学校见你。

Begin at the beginning of the story.　从故事的开头开始。

（2）表示速度，价格等：按……速度；值（卖）……钱。例如：

The car runs at a speed of 50 miles an hour. 汽车以每小时50英里的速度行驶。

The book is sold at two dollars. 　这本书卖两块钱。

（3）表示地点：在……（地点）；在……之上。例如：

Please enter at the front door. 　请从前门走。

（4）表示状态：在……之中。例如：

The two countries are at war.　两国正在交战。

We are at meeting .　我们在开会。

He is at the desk.　他在读书（或办公）。

（5）表示原因：因为；由于（说明某种情绪）。例如：

We are surprised at your success.　我们对你的成功感到非常惊奇。

They were sad at hearing such bad news.　他们听到这样的坏消息很难过。

（6）表示动作方向；针对着；朝；向（某一目标移动）。例如：

He threw a stone at the dog.　他朝狗扔了一块石头。

He aimed at the bird.他向鸟瞄准。

（7）引伸意义：在……（号召，召集，请求）下。例如：

The committee met at the call of the chairman.　在主席的召集下，委员会举行了。

8．before

(1)表示时间：在……以前。例如：

Pride goes before a fall.　骄者必败。

I met him yesterday, but I knew of him long before that.

我昨天见到了他，不过我很早以前就听说过他。

(2)表示位置：在……前面；当着……的面。例如：

Harder tasks are before us. 我们面前还有更艰巨的任务。

(3)表示次序：先于；在……之前。例如：

Ladies before gentlemen.　男先女后。

Think carefully before you act.你在行动之前，必须仔细想一想。

9．behind

（1）表示地点：在……背后；在……后面。例如：

Never say anything behind a person's back that you wouldn't say to his face.

你不愿意当着一个人的面说的话，也不要在他背后说。

The garage is behind the house.　汽车房在屋子的后面。

He came out from behind the door. 　他从门后出来。

（2）表示时间：迟于；晚于。例如：

The train is behind time. 　火车误点了。

His ideas are behind the times.　他的思想落后于时代。

（3）引伸意义；落后于；不如。例如：

He is behind other students in English.他的英语不如其他学生。

It is far behind its neighboring countries.　那个国家远远落后于其邻国。

10．besides

表示除……以外（相当于“+”）。例如：

There are many others besides me who disagree with what you say.

除了我以外，还有许多人不同意你的说法。

11．beyond

（1）表示位置：在（或向）……那边。例如：

The woods go far about two miles beyond the river.　这片森林延伸到河的那边大约两英里。

They came from beyond the seas.　他们从海外来。

（2）表示时间：迟于。例如：

Some shops keep open beyond midnight.　有些商店营业到半夜以后。

She came back beyond the fixed time.　她过了约定的时间才回来。

（3）表示范围，限度：超出，越出。例如：

The explanation is quite beyond me　这个解释我完全不懂。

Good advice is beyond price.　有益的劝告是无价之宝。

He lives beyond his income. 　他入不敷出。

12．but

除了…… 例如：

He eats nothing but fruit. 除了水果他啥也不吃。

I haven't told anybody but you. 除了你我谁也没有告诉。

13．by

（1）表示地点：在……旁；在……身边。例如：

Come and sit by me.坐到我身边来。

There is a house by the river. 河边有一所房子。

（2）表示方式，手段；靠；用；通过。例如：

The sawing is done by machine.锯木头的活儿由机器来做。

She angered her father by refusing to continue her studies.她不肯继续学习，她父亲生气了。

（3）表示程度，尺寸，数量：按；以……例如：

He is paid by the hour.人家按小时付给他钱。

He won the race by about two yards. 他以大约两码的距离领先而在赛跑中取胜。

Sugar is sold by the pound。糖论磅出售。

（4）表示时间：到……时候（为止）；不迟于。例如：

He will certainly come by three o'clock. 他到三点钟肯定回来。

By the end of last year, they had learned 2，000 words.到去年底，他们已学2000个单词。

（5）表示动作方向，位置：经过；沿着。例如：

I go by his office every day.

He passed by me without saying anything.

14．except

除……之外（相当于“-”）。例如：

We have lessons every day except Sunday.我们除了星期天之外，每天都有课。

Everyone was present except me. 除了我，每个人都在场。

15．for

（1）表示行为目的，对象：为……；替（代）；对于。例如：

He is the man for the job.他是做这事适当的人选。

I wrote a letter for him.我替他写了一封信。

The company has 1，000 men working for it. 这个公司有一千人。

That will be bad for your health. 那将有损于你的健康。

（2）引伸意义：赞成；支持。例如：

Who says for a picnic? 谁赞成出去野餐。

The decision was for a strike. 决议赞成罢工。

（3）引伸意义：限定于；供……用的。例如：

These tickets are for tomorrow.　这些票是明天的。

Here is a letter for you.　这儿有你一封信。

（4）引伸意义：至于；就……而言。例如：

It is cold for September. 就九月份来说，这天气是过冷了。

He is big for his age. 就他这个年龄来说，他算个子大的。

So much for today. 今天就讲（做）到这里。

（5）表示目标，去向：向；去；往。例如：

The train for Shanghai leaves from No.6 platform. 去上海的火车从六站台开出。

Let's go out for dinner.我们出去吃饭吧。

（6）引伸意义：当作；作为。例如：

I took him for an honest man. 我把他当做一个诚实的人。

Most of the houses are now for offices. 大多数房子都当作办公室用的。

I hold it for certain.　我以为那是确实的。

（7）表示原因：因为；由于。例如：

He was sent to prison for stealing.他因偷窃被捕入狱。

She could not speak for tears.她泣不成声。

（8）表示时间，距离，数量：计；达。例如：

I won't be here for long. 我不打算在这儿长住。

I haven't seen her for a year or so.　我有一年左右没有看见他了。

16．from

（1）表示起点，来源：自……；从……起；从……来。例如：

The train starts from Beijing and goes to Nanjing. 火车从北京出发，开往南京。

It is a letter from my father. 这是我父亲写来的信。

From the masses, to the masses. 从群众中来，到群众中去。

（2）表示距离，间隔：离。例如：

My house is far from here.　我的家离这很远。

Far from eye, far from heart.眼不见，心不烦。

（3）表示原因，动机：出于；由于。例如：

He acted from a sense of duty. 他出于责任感才这样做的。

He is suffering from a cold.　他患感冒了。

（4）表示原料：用……制成（是一种化学反映）。例如：

Steel is made from iron.　钢是生铁炼成的。

Wine is made from grape.　葡萄酒是用葡萄酿造的。

17．in

（1）表示地点，场所：在……里；在……上。例如：

He lives in a village.　他住在一个村里。

She carried a bag in her hand.　她手里拿着一个提包。

It is cool in the shade.　树阴下凉爽。

（2）表示状态，情况，境遇，服饰：处于……中。例如：

The Party was not in power then.　党在那时不处于掌权的地位。

She is in white.　她穿着白衣服。

He nodded in satisfaction.　他满意地点点头。

She is in her early twenties.　她刚二十出头。

（3）表示时间：在……期间；在……以后；在……时间内。例如：

I will come back in a week.　我过一星期回来。

He became a teacher in 2000.　他在2000年成为教师。

（4）表示范围，领域：在……方面；在……之内。例如：

I'm weak in English. 我的英语不佳。

Did you have any difficulty in doing it ?　做这件事你碰到困难了吗？

（5）表示方式：以；用。

例如：

Say it in English. 用英语说。

Let's arrange the chairs in ten rows.　让我们把椅子排成十行。

I will take you there in my car.　我用我的汽车带你去。

18．into

（1）表示动作方向：到……里。

例如：

He fell into the river.他落入河中。

The children went into the room. 孩子们进屋了。

（2）表示时间：进入（到）。

例如：

We passed out of children into manhood.　我们从童年进入成年。They usually work far into the night. 他们通常工作到深夜。

（3）表示变化状态：成；为；转入；变成。

例如：

The glass broke into pieces.　杯子摔成碎片。

Turn the following sentences into English.　将下列句子译成英语。

The rain turned into snow. 雨变成雪。

19．like

像；如；跟……一样。

例如：

Your pen is just like mine.你的笔和我的一样。

Don't look at me like that.别那样看我。

The moon looks like a silver plate.月亮看上去象个银盘子。

20．of

of的原始概念是“属于”来自“构成”等。主要表示各种关系，它的用法十分复杂，这里只举最主要的方面。

（1）表示从属关系：（属于）……的；（关于）……的。

例如：

They are fine sons and daughters of the Chinese people.他们是中华民族的优秀儿女。

The wall of the city has been removed.城墙已被拆除。

There is a map of China on the wall. 墙上有一幅中国地图。

I have heard of him. 我听说过他。

（2）表示同位关系。

例如：

Xiao Li is a fool of man.小李是一个傻里傻气的人。

He came from the city of Beijing.　他从北京来。

It took place in the month of May.　那件事发生在五月。

（3）表示动宾关系。

例如：

It is just a waste of time.　那完全是浪费时间。

（4）表示“剥夺”，“除去”等。

例如：

We must get rid of feudalism.　我们必须消灭封建主义。

He was robbed of his purse.　他被抢走了钱包。

The doctor cured me of my illness.　医生治愈了我的病。

21．on

（1）表示地点：在……上（与……接触）。例如：

He put the book on the table.他把书放在桌子上。

The fly is on the ceiling.　苍蝇在天花板上。

There were water colors on the wall. 墙上有水彩画。

（2）表示时间：在……（星期几，某日，某日的早，午，晚，夜等）时候。例如：

He came on the 15th of May.　他是五月十五来的。

He will be back on the morning of March 2.他将在三月二日早晨回来。

（3）引伸意义：从事……，处于……情况中。例如：

He is on duty now.　他在值班。

The house is on fire.　房子着火了。

They are on holiday.　他们在度假。

He came to Beijing on business.　他来北京出差。

（4）表示关系：关于；论及。例如：

What about your idea on the subject?　关于这个问题你有什么看法？

I congratulate you on your success.　祝贺你的成功。

I'm sorry to differ from you on that question. 很抱歉，在那个问题上我和你的观点不同。

（5）表示动作，方向：向着；对着。例如：

He smiled on me. 他对着我笑。

They made an attack on the enemy. 他们向敌人进攻。

22．over

（1）表示地点：在……上方（与……不接触）；在……上面。例如：

The sky is over our heads. 我们头顶蓝天。

The plane flew over the house. 飞机掠过房屋。

There is a bridge over the river. 河上有一座桥。

（2）表示动作趋向：越过；从……上边过去。例如：

He jumped over a trench. 他跳过壕沟。

The thief got over the wall and ran away. 贼越墙逃走了。

（3）引伸意义：遍及；（复习，检查等）从头至尾（经过）；全；到处。例如：

English is spoken all over the world. 全世界人都说英语。

Will you look over the exercise and if there are errors?

请你把练习检查一边，看看有什么错误。

（4）引伸意义：在……方面；关于；为；由于；对于。例如：

He often has a headache over English grammar. 他为英语语法而头疼。

We argued over the matter. 我们为那事而争论。

It is use crying over spilt milk.覆水难收。

23．to

（1）表示动作方向：到；向；往。例如：

She is going to America on Friday.　　　她要去美国。

We went to the countryside.　　　我们到农村去。

（2）表示间接关系：给；于。例如：

Did you send the letter to her?　　　你寄信给她啦？

To whom did you send the message?　　　你捎口信给谁啦？

（3）表示行为目的：为了。例如：

He came to her aid.　　　他来帮助她。

Let's drink to your success.　　　为你的成功干杯。

He failed to my disappointment.　　　他失败了，令我失望。

（4）表示时间，程度：直到……为止；在……之前；到……程度。例如：

It is now five to six.　　　　　　现在是六点差五分。

He is wet to the skin.　　　　　　他全身湿透了。

We will fight to the end.　　　　　我们将战斗到底。

（5）表示方向，位置：在；位于。（在外部）。例如：

The house looks to the south. 房子坐北朝南。

France lies to the south of England.　　　法国在英国的南边。

24．with

（1）表示共同关系：和……在一起；同……；跟……。例如：

Can you come and stay with us for a time?你能来和我们住一段时间么？

He went with his friends.他和他的朋友们一起走了。

（2）表示客体关系。例如：

His parents are very strict with him他父母对他很严厉。

We are pleased with the house.我们对这所房子很满意。

（3）表示工具，手段等：被；用。例如：

The ground was covered with snow.大地被积雪所覆盖。

To kill two birds with one stone. 一箭双雕。

I dug a field with a pick. 我用镐挖地。

（4）表示从属关系:具有;带有;在……身边。例如:

I saw an old man with grey hair.我看见一个白发老人。

I bought a book with a lot of pictures in it.我买了一本书,里面有许多图片。

Have you some money with you?你带着钱吗?

（5）表示让步关系:尽管;虽有。例如:

With all his wealth, he is unhappy.尽管他富有,但是不幸福。

With all her shortcomings, she is hardworking.虽然她有许多缺点,但她很用功。

（6）表示原因:因为;由于。例如:

He jumped with joy. 他高兴得跳起来。

She is shivering with cold.她正冷得发抖。

七、连词

连词是用来连接词、短语、从句与句子的词叫连词。连词是一种虚词，在句中不重读，不能独立担任句子成分。

（一）并列连词

连接具有并列关系的词、短语或句子的连词，根据意义又可分为表示联合、转折、选择和因果等四种关系的连词。

1．表示联合关系的并列连词

表示联合关系的并列连词有：and（和），both…and…(既……又……)，neither…nor…（既不……也不……），not only…but also…（不但……而且……），as well as（除……外，也……），如：

I am a teacher and he is a doctor. 我是老师，他是医生。

He has experience as well as knowledge.

(=He has not only knowledge but also experience.)他既有知识，又有经验。

Neither I nor he has seen the film. 我没看过那部电影，他也没看过。

2．表示转折关系的并列连词

表示转折关系的并列连词有：but, while, yet, however, whereas, nevertheless, 如：

I am willing, yet unable. 我心有余而力不足。

He is short, while his brother is tall. 他个子矮而他兄弟个子高。

3．表示因果关系的并列连词。这类连词主要有for, so等。如：

The child had a bad cough, so his mother took him to the doctor.

这孩子咳得很利害，所以他妈妈带他去看医生。

You are supposed to get rid of carelessness, for it often leads to serious errors.

你们一定要克服粗枝大叶，因为粗枝大叶常常引起严重的错误。

4．表示选择关系的并列连词

表示选择关系的并列连词有：or, or else, otherwise, either…or…（或……或……），rather than（而不，也不），如：

John or I am to blame. 不是约翰，就是我该受责备。

Seize the chance, otherwise you’ll regret it. 抓住机会，否则你会后悔的。

You can either stay at home or go fishing. 你可以待在家里，或是去钓鱼。

（二）从属连词

用来连接主句和从句的连词叫从属连词。从属连词可分为两类：引导名词性从句的从属连词和引导状语从句的从属连词。

1．引导名词性从属连词

引导名词性从句的词多是连接代词和连接副词，这类连词引导名词性从句时只起连接作用，在从句中不担任任何成分。

（1）由连接代词引导

连接代词除了可以起连接作用外，还可以在从句中作主语、宾语、定语等。连接代词主要有who，whom，whose，which，what, whatever, whoever, whomever等。

Do what he or she tells you to do.按照他/她所告诉你的去做。

What is needed is a change in land ownership.需要做的事就是改变土地的所有制。

What he said at the meeting astonished everybody present.

他在会议上的发言使入会者大吃一惊。

Can you tell me who that gentleman is? 你能告诉我那位先生是谁么？

They want to know what they can do to help us.他们想知道怎样帮助我们。

They eat whatever they can find. 他们找到什么就吃什么？

Whoever comes will be welcomed.无论谁来都会受到欢迎。

（2）由连接副词引导

连接副词除了起连接作用外，还在从句中作状语。连接副词主要有when，where，how，why等。

I remember when this used to be a quiet village.我记得那时候这是一个安静的村庄。

Would you please tell me how I can get to the airport? 请告诉我怎样去机场？

I don’t know where we are going to have this meeting.

我不知道我们到什么地方去开这次会议。

Do you know why he was late? 你知道他为什么迟到吗?

2．引导状语从句的从属连词

英语中大多数从属连词用来引导状语从句，并且引导的状语从句位置比较灵活，大多位于主句之前或之后皆可，位于主句之前时通常用逗号隔开。从引导状语从句的连词的意义来看，可分为引导时间、原因、结果、目的、让步、条件等各种从句的连词。

（1）引导时间状语从句的从属连词

此类连词主要有：when, while, after, before, as, as soon as , now(that), until, till, once, since,whenever, no sooner...than, hardly/barely/scarcely...when等。

We should strike while the iron is hot.我们要趁热打铁。

Since he entered the university, he has made great progress in his studies.

进入大学以来，他在学业上已经取得了很大进步。

They kept on working until it became dark.他们一直工作到天黑。

Once you begin , you must go on. 你一旦开始，就必须继续下去。

Now (that)you are here, you’d better stay.你既然来了，那就不要走了。

No sooner had they got to the field than it began to rain.他们刚到田里就开始下雨了。

She felt a thrill the moment she got into the the atre.她一进剧场就感到一种激动。

Every time he got to Beijing, he came to see me.每次他来北京，他都来看我。

（2）引导原因状语从句的从属连词

此类连词主要有because, as, since, now(that)，等。because引导的从句表示产生某种结果的必然的因果关系，语气较重，可回答why问句；since语气较轻，常位于句首；as则语气最轻。

We couldn’t cross the river because the water had risen.

水已经上涨了，所以我们没能过河。

Since everyone is here, let’s begin. 既然大家都来了，我们就开始吧。

Now that you've got a chance, you might as well make full use of it.

既然你有了这个机会，你可以充分的利用它了。

The Italian boy was regarded as a hero because he gave his life for the country.

因为这个意大利男孩为国家献出了生命，所以他被誉为英雄。

Why use wood when you can use plastic?既然能用塑料, 为什么还要用木料?

（3）引导让步状语从句的从属连词

此类连词主要有although, though, as, even if, even though,no matter what等。

Though my father is old,yet he wants to do something for our country.

我爸虽然老了，可他还要为国家做点事。

Even if there are difficulties，we must do it well.即使有困难，我们也要把工作做好。

Young as I am,I know some of the family secrets.尽管我年龄小，我知道一些家庭秘密。

Nobody believed him no matter what he said.不管他说什么没人相信他。

（4）引导条件状语从句的从属连词

此类连词主要有if, unless, as/so long as, supposing等。

If we go on polluting the world ,it won’t be fit for to live in.如果我们继续污染这个世界，那么这个世界就会不适合我们生活了。

You will fail unless you work hard. 除非努力你才不会失败。

You can go out as/so long as you promise to be back soon.

只要你保证很快回来，你就可以出去。

What shall we do supposing he won’t agree?假定他不同意，我们怎么办？

Unless he comes, we won’t be able to go.他不来我们不能走。

（5）引导行为方式的状语从句的从属连词

表示行为方式的从属连词主要有as，as if/though等。

When a pencil is partly in a glass of water, it looks as if it were broken.

当把铅笔一部分放到水里时，铅笔看上去就像断了。

We did as he told us. 我们照他叮嘱的做了。

He spoke as though he knew the question very well.

他说得好像对这个问题知道得很清楚。

I remember the whole thing as if it happened yesterday.

整个事情我都记得,就好像此事发生在昨天。

He spoke like that as if he had been there before.

他那样说好像他从前去过那里似的。

（6）引导目的状语从句的从属连词

表示目的的从属连词主要有that, so that，in order that等。

I hurried so that I wouldn’t be late for class. 为了上课不迟到我们赶紧走。

John shut everybody out of the kitchen so that he could prepare his grand surprise for the party.

约翰把大家关在厨房外边，是为了能够为晚会烹饪出人意料的饭菜。

John saved his money in order that he might buy a bicycle.

约翰为了买一辆自行车而把钱节省下来。

Bring it nearer that I may see it better.

把它拿近一些, 以便使我看得比较清楚。

Speak slowly so that we can follow you.

讲得慢些以便我们能跟得上你。

（7）引导结果的状语从词的从属连词

表示结果的从属连词，主要有that，so...that，so that，such...that等。

They were so pleased to see each other that they forgot everything else.

他们彼此见到面，高兴得把别的事情都忘记了。

It was such a cold day that there was nobody on the street.

天气非常寒冷，以至于街上没有任何人。

It is so cold that all the water pipes have frozen.

天太冷，所有的水管都冻住了。

His behaviour was such that we all refused to receive him in our homes.

他的品行是如此的坏, 我们都拒绝在家里招待他。

（8）引导比较的状语从词的从属连词

表示比较的从属连词主要有than，as等。

John plays football as well as, if not better than, David.

约翰踢足球和大维比如果不比他好的话，至少和他踢得一样好。

I think Chinese is more popular than any other subject.

我想汉语比其他任何科目都更受欢迎。

Do you think that art is as interesting as music?你认为美术与音乐一样有趣吗?

（9）引导地点的状语从词的从属连词

表示地点的从属连词主要有where，wherever等。

You should make it a rule to leave things where you can find them again.

你应当养成习惯，将东西放在你能找到的地方。

After the war, a new school building was put up where there once had been a theatre.

战后，在以前的剧院处建了一所新学校。

Leave her where she is. 把她留在原地。

You can take it with you wherever you go.你不论去哪里，都可随身携带它。

八、形容词

形容词主要用来说明或修饰名词或代词，描述名词或代词所代表的人或物的性质，增加或补充其含义，从而限制或缩小其适用的范围。

（一）形容词在句中的作用

1．作定语（修饰名词、代词）

He is a very good swimmer. 他是个非常好的游泳运动员。

I have an interesting book. 我有一本非常有趣的书。

2．作表语

His advice is quite helpful.　他的建议十分有用。

He looks very healthy.　他看起来很健康。

I'm happy. 我很高兴。

3．作宾语补足语

The man made the ground wet. 雨弄湿了地面。

He found the door open.　他发现门是开的。

What makes you sad?　什么事儿使你如此伤心？

The wall was painted green.　墙被漆成了绿色。

（二）多个形容词的位置

如有一个以上的形容词修饰名词，这些形容词的位置即由它们和被修饰名词的关系密切程度来决定。一般说来，关系最密切的最靠近被修饰的名词，关系较远的离被修饰的名词也较远，但这个顺序也是有规则可循的，一般为：限、数、现、形、龄、色、国、材，即：限定词（冠词、指示代词、不定代词、物主代词、名词所有格）+一般性描述形容词 + 大小 + 形状 + 时间、年龄 + 颜色 + 国籍、来源 +材料 + 用途（类别）+ 被修饰的名词，如：

a beautiful little red flower　一朵漂亮的小红花

a white cotton shirt　白棉布衬衫

a glittering gold ring　闪闪发光的金戒指

a beautiful red flag　一面漂亮的小红旗

the little pink plastic doll　小小的粉红色的塑料娃娃

a large antique brown and white German beer-mug　一只德国古代棕白色的大啤酒杯

(三）形容词的比较级和最高级的构成

构成方法原级比较级最高级单音节词和少数双音节词在词尾加-er或-estfast 快的

long　长的faster

longerfastest

longest以字母e结尾的形容词，加-r或-stnice好的

late迟的nicer

laternicest

latest重读闭音节词只有一个辅音字母时，应先双写辅音字母，再加-er或-estbig大的

hot热的

thin瘦的

fat胖的bigger

hotter

thinner

fatterbiggest

hottest

thinnest

fattest以辅音字母+y结尾的双音节词，先改“y”为“i”,再加-er或-esteasy容易的

happy开心的easier

happiereasiest

happiest部分双音节词和多音节词在前面加more或mostbeautiful

漂亮的

important

重要的

careful

小心的more beautiful

more important

more careful

most beautiful

most important

most careful

注意少数不规则的变化

原级比较级最高级good/wellbetterbestbad/illworseworstmany/muchmoremostlittlelessleastfa rfarther

较远的farthest

更远的further

进一步的furthest

最深远的oldolder

更老的

elder

年长的oldest

最老的

eldest

最年长的(四)形容词比较结构的用法

1．两者相比（甲=乙），用“as + 原级 + as”

Tom is as tall as Jack. 汤姆和杰克一样高。

She could do as well as a man. 她能做得和男人一样好。

2．两者相比（甲<乙）,用“not as (so)+ 原级 + as”表示

She isn’t as(so)careful as you. 她不如你细心。

3．形容词的比较级

（1）两者相比（甲>乙），用“比较级+than”表示

This room is bigger than that one. 这个房间比那个大。

She is more beautiful than her sister. 她比她姐姐更漂亮。

（2）如要表示“……不如……”，用“less +原级+than”结构

（3）“the +比较级，the +比较级”的结构，表示“越……越……”，如：

The more haste, the less speed. 欲速则不达。

The sooner (you go), the better (it will be). 越早越好。

（4）“比较级 + and + 比较级”，表示“越来越……”，如：

Our country is getting stronger and stronger.

They are walking more and more slowly.

九、副词

副词的主要功能是修饰动词、形容词或其他副词，有时也可用来修饰全句。

（一）副词在句中的作用及构成

1．副词在句中可作状语,表语和定语

He studies very hard.　（作状语）

Life here is full of joy.　（作定语）

When will you be back? （作表语）

2．副词的构成

（1）本身即为副词，如now, rather, very, there, how, when, too等。

（2）与形容词形式相同的副词，如early, late, high, wide， deep等。

（3）由“形容词+ly”构成的副词，如slowly, quickly, clearly, perfectly, badly等。

（二）副词的分类

1．时间副词

时间副词通常用来表示动作的时间。常见的时间副词有：now， today, tomorrow, yesterday, before, late, early, never, seldom, sometimes, often, usually, always等。例如：

He often comes to school late.

What are we going to do tomorrow?

He has never been to Beijing.

2．地点副词

地点副词通常用来表示动作发生的地点。常见的地点副词有：here, there, inside, outside, home, upstairs, downstairs, anywhere, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, down, up, off, on, in, out等。例如：

I met an old friend of mine on my way home.

He went upstairs.

Put down your name here.

3．方式副词

方式副词一般都是回答“怎样的？”这类问题的，其中绝大部分都是由一个形容词加词尾-ly构成的, 有少数方式副词不带词尾-ly, 它们与形容词同形。常见的方式副词有：anxiously, badly, bravely, calmly, carefully, proudly, rapidly, suddenly, successfully, angrily, happily, slowly, warmly, well, fast, slow, quick, hard, alone, high, straight, wide等。例如：

The old man walked home slowly.

Please listen to the teacher carefully.

The birds are flying high.

He runs very fast.

4．程度副词

程度副词多数用来修饰形容词和副词，有少数用来修饰动词或介词短语。常见的程度副词有：much, (a)little, a bit, very, so, too, enough, quite, rather, pretty, greatly, completely, nearly, almost, deeply, hardly, partly等。例如：

Her pronunciation is very good.

She sings quite well.

I can hardly agree with you.

5．疑问副词是用来引导特殊疑问句的副词。常见的疑问副词有：how, when, where, why等。例如：

How are you getting along with your studies?

Where were you yesterday?

Why did you do that?

（三）部分常用副词的用法

1．very, much

这两个副词都可表示“很”，但用法不同。Very用来修饰形容词和副词的原级，而much用来修饰形容词和副词的比较级。例如：

She is a very nice girl.

I'm feeling much better now.

Much可以修饰动词，而very则不能。例如：

I don't like the idea much.

They did not talk much.

2．too, either

这两个副词都表示“也”，但too用于肯定句，either用于否定句。例如：

She can dance, and I can dance, too.

I haven't read the book and my brother hasn't either.

3．already, yet

already一般用于肯定句，yet一般用于否定句。例如：

He has already left.

Have you heard from him yet?

He hasn't answered yet.

4．so, neither

so和neither都可用于倒装句，但so表示肯定，neither表示否定。例如：

My brother likes football and so do I.

My brother doesn't like dancing and neither do I.

十、非谓语动词

非谓语动词主要指在句中不能充当谓语，而是充当其他语法功能的动词。非谓语动词有三种：动词不定式、动名词和分词（包括现在分词和过去分词）。非谓语动词没有人称和数的变化，但是有语态和时态的变化。

(一)动词不定式

1．不定式在句中的作用

动词不定式有副词、形容词和名词的特征，因此在句中可作状语、定语、宾语、宾语补足语、表语和主语成分。

（1）作主语

To master a foreign language is very important.

Not to smoke will do you a lot of good.

To obey the laws is everyone's duty.

动词不定式作主语时，常常用先行词it作形式主语，放在句首，将不定式移到谓语之后作实际主语。例如：

It is difficult to answer such a complicated question in English.

It has been possible to send man to space.

It takes the electronic computer only a few seconds to solve the problem.

（2）作表语

Our main task is to carry these building materials to the work site.

The most common way of getting heat is to burn fuel.

Our goal is to accomplish the modernization of agriculture, industry, national defiance, and science and technology.

（3）作宾语

在及物动词begin, cease, choose, continue, decide, expect, fail, forget, happen, hate, help, hope, intend, like, love, manage, mean, offer, plan, prefer, prepare, promise, refuse, remember, try, want, wish等后边常用不定式作宾语。例如：

When did you begin to learn English?

Once you turn off the switch, electricity ceases to flow.

He promised to keep the secret for you.

注意：当不定式作直接宾语，它后面还有宾语补足语时，需用it作形式宾语代替不定式，而把不定式放在补足语之后。例如：

I found it difficult to identify mistakes. 我发现辨认错误很难。

Do you consider it wise to ignore him? 你认为不理睬他是明智的吗？

（4）作宾语补足语

有些动词如allow, advise, ask, beg, believe, can’t bear, call, choose, cause, command, determine, enable, expect, fail, feel, find, force, get, have, hear, help, know, invite, lead, let, like, make, notice, order, prove, request, set, see, teach, tell, think, want, warn, watch, wish等后面常跟动词不定式作宾语补足语。

注意：在make（使）, let（让）, have（使，叫）等使役动词后；在see（看）, watch （观看）, look at（看）, behold（看）, observe（观察，看见）, perceive（看见）, feel（感觉）, hear（听）, listen to （听……）, notice（发现，注意）等表示感官的动词后及在know（了解）, please（请）等后面省去动词不定式符号“to”。

在动词find与help之后的“to”可省也不可省。例如：

I asked him to tell me the results of the scientific research.

Can you help me (to)clean the windows?

Ask her to wait for me at the gate.

Her mother never has her do that heavy work.

有些动词如consider, prove, think, know, feel, suppose, discover, imagine, find等也可跟“宾语 + to be”的形式，使用中应注意。例如：

We found him (to be)dishonest. 我们发现他不诚实。

We all know him to be dead. 我们都以为他死了。

（5）作主语补足语

如果把动词不定式作宾语补足语的句中的谓语由主动语态改为被动语态，则宾语补足语就成了主语补足语。要注意作宾语补足语时在某些动词后省去的不定式符号to, 此时一般不能省去。例如：

Plastics are found to be good insulators.

Water power can be made to produce electricity.

The laboring people of the world are called on to unite.

号召全世界的劳动人民团结起来。

（6）作定语

动词不定式作定语，放在所修饰的名词或代词后。与所修饰名词有如下关系：

1)动宾关系：

I have a meeting to attend.

注意：不定式为不及物动词时，所修饰的名词如果是地点、工具等，应有必要的介词，如：

He found a good house to live in.

The child has nothing to worry about.

What did you open it with?

At last we found a room to live in.

I haven't got a chair to sit on.

如果不定式修饰time, place, way，可以省略介词：

He has no place to live.

This is the best way to work out this problem.

如果不定式所修饰名词是不定式动作承受者，不定式可用主动式也可用被动式：

Have you got anything to send?

Have you got anything to be sent?

2)说明所修饰名词的内容：

We have made a plan to finish the work.

3)被修饰名词是不定式逻辑主语：

He is the first to get here.

动词不定式作定语时，须放在被修饰的名词或代词的后面，如：

My father didn't have any chance to go to school before liberation.

Energy is the ability to do work.

Please give me something to drink.

（7）作状语

1)表目的：

用to + 原形动词，in order to + 原形动词或so as to + 原形动词引起不定式短语表示目的，结果，原因。例如：

To meet the needs of our industry, we must produce more coal.

为了满足我国工业的需要，我们必须生产更多的煤炭。（表目的）

He worked day and night to get the money.

She sold her hair to buy the watch chain.

注意不定式放句首时，逻辑主语与句子主语要一致：

wrong：To save money, every means has been tried.

right：To save money, he has tried every means.

wrong：To learn English well, a dictionary is needed.

right：To learn English well, he needs a dictionary.

2)表结果(往往是与预期愿望相反的结果)：

He arrived late only to find the train had gone.

I visited him only to find him out.

The temperature is so high as to change water into steam.

温度高到可使水变成蒸汽。（表结果）

在 “too...to”句型中，不定式含有否定意义，表示“结果”。

He was too busy to help me at the moment.

He was too excited to speak.

3)表原因：

They were very sad to hear the news.

They were glad to hear from you. 收到你的信他们很高兴。（表原因）

4)表程度：

It's too dark for us to see anything.

The question is simple for him to answer.

2．不定式省略to的情况

（1）使役动词与to的省略

当不定式用于let, make, have等使役动词后作宾语补足语，不定式必须省略to。如：

Let me have another cup of tea. 给我再来一杯茶。

She had him dig away the snow. 她让他把雪挖走。

They made him tell them everything. 他们强迫他把一切全告诉他们。

但是，当使役动词用于被动语态时，其后的不定式则必须要带to。如：

He's forced to work for 20 hours a day.

他被迫一天工作20小时。

另外注意，force, oblige等虽然也表示“使”，但它们后用作宾语补足语的不定式必须带to。如：

They forced her to sign the paper. 他们强迫她在文件上签字。

The law obliged parents to send their children to school. 法律要求父母送子女上学。

（2）感觉动词与to的省略

当不定式用于表示感觉的动词feel, hear, notice, observe, see, watch, look at, listen to等作宾语补足语时，不定式必须省略to。如：

We all felt the house shake. 我们都感觉这房子在震动。

I heard him go down the stairs. 我听见他下楼了。

Did you notice her leave the house? 她离开屋子你注意到了吗?

I watched her get into the car. 我看着她上了车。

但是，当feel后用作宾语补足语的不定式为to be时，则不能省略to。如：

They all felt the plan to be unwise. 他们都认为这个计划不明智。

注意，当这些动词变为被动语态时，不定式前的to不能省略。如：

They were heard to break a glass in the next door.

听见他们在隔壁打破了一个玻璃杯子。

另外，若用作宾语补足语的不定式为完成式，则通常应带to。如：

I noticed her to have come early. 我注意到她来得很早。

（3）why (not)与to的省略

在why (not)…?之后的不定式不能带to。如：

Why argue with him? He'll never change his mind.

为什么要跟他争论? 他永远不会改变自己的看法。

Why not try going by boat for a change? 为什么不试着坐船去，这样也可以换换花样?

Why not wait till the winter sales to buy a new coat?

为什么不等到冬季大贱卖时再买一件新外衣呢?

（4）介词except / but与to的省略

当不定式用作介词except或but的宾语时，该不定式有时带to，有时不带to，情形比较复杂，大致原则是：其前有do，不定式不带to；其前没有do，不定式通常带to。如：

He likes nothing except to watch TV. 除了看电视外，他什么都不喜欢。

It had no effect except to make him angry. 除惹他生气外，没产生任何效果。

There’s little we can do except wait. 除了等待我们没有什么办法。

I could do nothing except agree. 我除了同意，没有别的办法。

（5）help与to的省略

当动词help后跟一个不定式用作宾语或宾语补足语时，不定式可以带to，也可以不带to。如：

Can you help (to)carry this table upstairs? 你能帮忙把桌子搬到楼上去吗?

I have lost my watch. Will you help me (to)look for it?

我把表丢了，你能不能帮我找一下?

但是，当help用于被动语态时，其后不定式必须带to。如：

Millie was helped to overcome her fear of flying. 米利被帮助克服了她的飞行恐惧。

另外，当不定式为否定式时，其中的to通常不宜省略。如：

How can I help my children not to worry about their exams?

我怎样才能帮助我的孩子们不为他们的考试着急呢?

（6）在cannot but, cannot choose but, cannot help but之后接不带to的不定式。如：

I cannot but admire his courage. 我只能钦佩他的勇气。

(7)固定搭配与to的省略

1)let类固定搭配：let fall (无意中说出)，let fly(发射、攻击)，let go(放开)，let slip (放走)，live and let live (自己活，也让别人活)等。如：

She let slip a chance to work abroad. 她错过了出国工作的机会。

The dog’s got a stick between his teeth and he won’t let go. 那狗叼着一根棍儿不松口。

He aimed carefully and then let fly. 他仔细瞄准之后便开了枪。

I guessed what was happening from a few words she let fall.

我从她说的几句话中猜出发生什么事了。

2)make类搭配：make believe (假装)，make do (凑合着用)等。如：

The boys made believe (that)they were astronauts. 男孩子们假扮成航天员。

We were in a hurry so we had to make do with a quick snack.

我们时间很紧，只好胡乱吃了顿小吃。

3．动词不定式的时态

（1）一般式：不定式的一般式所表示的动作与谓语动词动作同时发生或发生在谓语动词动作之后。例如：

He seems to know a lot.

We plan to pay a visit. 我们打算去旅行。

He wants to be an artist. 他想成为一名艺术家。

The patient asked to be operated on at once.

The teacher ordered the work to be done.

Be quite. Our monitor has a piece of good news to tell us.

安静，班主任有些消息告诉我们。

We hope to build up a modern laboratory before long.

（2）进行式：不定式的进行式所表示的动作与谓语动词动作同时发生。例如：

The boy pretended to be working hard.

He seems to be reading in his room.

The water seems to be boiling.

She was found to be teaching the pupils to make model planes.

（3）完成式：不定式的完成式表示的动作发生在谓语动词动作之前。例如：

I regretted to have told a lie.

I happened to have seen the film.

They are known to have come to a decision on the matter.

It was a great satisfaction to have revisited our native village.

如果动词不定式的完成式用在表示“需要”，“希望”，“打算”等意义的动词如hope, wish, expect, intend, mean后以及用在情态动词should, could, ought(to), might和be to的过去式后，则说明动作没有实现。例如：

We meant to have had a meeting to discuss this problem.

我们本来打算开个会讨论这个问题。（但结果却没有开）

You should have switched off the light when you left the classroom.

你离开教室的时候应该把灯关掉。（实际上没有关灯）

We were to have built a laboratory behind the lecture building.

我们原来要在教学大楼后边盖一座实验室。（但后来没有盖）

（4）完成进行式：不定式表示的动作在谓语动词表示的动作之前开始发生，并延续到那个时候，可能仍在进行。例如：

He is said to have been working in this factory for more than twenty years.

She seems to have been writing a scientific treatise.

4．不定式的被动语态

表示被动的意义。当不定式的逻辑主语是不定式表示的动作的承受者时，则用被动形式。例如：

Water is known to be composed of hydrogen and oxygen.

It was the first computer to be designed by Chinese engineers.

She was the first woman to have been chosen as an astronaut.

The mother seems to have been repaired.

（二）动名词

1．动名词的功能

(1)作主语

动名词作主语与不定式作主语在语序位置方面较相似，但在表达意思上有差异。动名词作主语时，它已经将动作名词化了，已把某个动作视为某种活动或是某件事情了，动作意义很弱，比较抽象。而不定式作主语的动作意义较强，多指”要去做某事”，这种动作往往是“要发生的一次性动作”,比较具体。例如：

Breathing became difficult at that altitude. 在那个海拔高度呼吸变得很困难。

Reading English aloud in the morning will do you a lot of good .

早读英文会给你带来许多好处。

Climbing mountains is really fun. 爬山真是有趣。

Cheating on an exam ruins one’s character. 考试作弊毁坏人的性格。

It takes me ten minutes to get home from my office. 我从办公室回家要花十分钟。

It needs time to make three copies of it. 把它复制三份需要时间。

动名词作主语时，也常用“It is...”和“There is...”两种句型。

“It is...”的句型常用于说明“某种活动或是某件事情是如何”。强调事物的性质、特征等。常用于It is后面的词有：no good, no use, useless, a waste, worthwhile, dangerous等等。

“There is...”往往用于说明“不允许、禁止某种活动或是某件事情发生或存在”。类似一种建议、命令等。例如：

It is no use waiting for him any longer. 等他是没有用的。

It is no good learning without practice. 学而不实践是没好处的。

There is no joking about such matters. 这种事开不得玩笑。

There is no littering about. 不许乱扔杂物。

(2)作定语

动名词作定语的情况并不是很普遍，单个的动名词作定语主要是说明被修饰词的作用、意义等；而单个的现在分词作定语则主要是表示被修饰词正在做什么。

a walking stick ＝a stick for walking=a stick which is used for walking

a washing machine=a machine for washing=a machine which is used for washing

a reading room=a room for reading=a room which is used for reading

a measuring tape=a tape for measuring=a tape which is used for measuring

sleeping pills=pills for sleeping=pills which is used for sleeping

swimming pool游泳池 (the pool for swimming)working people

reading material阅读材料sleeping child熟睡孩子

walking stick手杖floating needle浮针

opening speech开幕词oppressing class压迫阶级

listening aid助听器developing countries发展中国家

waiting room候车室running water自来水

(3)作表语

动名词作表语主要说明“主语是做什么的、或是怎么回事”，动作意义弱，较抽象；动名词作表语时句子主语常表示无生命事物的名词或what引导的名词性从句。表语动名词与主语通常是对等的关系，表示主语的内容，主语、表语可互换位置。例如：

His part-time job is promoting new products for the company.

他的业余工作是为那家公司推销新产品。

Reading is for sure learning, but applying is also learning to a greater extent.

读书当然是学习，然而运用在很大程度上更是学习。

Their task is exploring oil mines in the west.

Your task is cleaning the windows. 你的任务就是擦窗户。

What I hate most is being laughed at. 我最痛恨的就是被别人嘲笑。

(4)作宾语

1)作动词的宾语

某些动词后出现非限定性动词时只能用动名词作宾语，不能用不定式。常见的此类动词有：advise, allow, permit, avoid, consider, enjoy, finish, give up, cannot help, imagine, include, keep, keep on, mind, miss, put off, delay, practise, resist, suggest, depend on, think about, set about, succeed in, worry about, burst out, insist on, can't stand, be used to, get used to, devote…to…, look forward to, pay attention to, get down to等。如：

They went on walking and never stopped talking. 他们继续走，说个不停。

I found it pleasant walking along the seashore. 在海滩上走真是乐事。

He managed to escape suffering from the disease. 他设法避免患那种疾病。

After hearing the funny story , all of us couldn't help laughing ear to ear.

听完了那个滑稽故事，我们忍不住大笑了。

Excuse my interrupting you for a while. 请原谅我打扰你一会儿。

The suspect denied turning on the computer in the office that night.

犯罪嫌疑人否认他那晚开过办公室的电脑。

2)作介词的宾语

We are thinking of making a new plan for the next term.

我们正考虑为下学期制定新的计划。

Shall we have a rest or get down to doing our work? 我们休息呢还是开始干活？

3)作形容词的宾语

The music is well worth listening to more than once. 这种曲子很值得多听几遍。

We are busy preparing for the coming sports meet.

我们正为马上到来的运动会忙着做准备。

有些及物动词后既可用动名词作宾语，也可用不定式作宾语，两种结构在意义上差别不大。常见的有：attempt (打算), begin (开始), can’t afford (花不起), can’t bear (无法容忍), continue (继续), deserve (值得)forget (忘记), hate (不喜欢), intend (打算), like（喜欢）, love (爱), neglect (忽略), need (需要), prefer (宁愿), propose (提议), want (需要)等。例如：

Do you prefer strolling outside or staying inside (to stroll outside or to stay inside)?

你是想在外面散步，还是想呆在室内？

I can't afford watching (to watch)the game through to the end because I should be at work in thirty minutes. 这场比赛我是看不完了，因为半小时后我要上班。

I like playing (to play)chess with you , but not today . 我喜欢和你下棋，但不是今天。

When did you begin learning (to learn)English ? 你什么时候开始学英文的？

有些及物动词后也是既可用动名词作宾语，也可用不定式作宾语，但是两种结构在意义上存在一定的差别：

在remember, regret后面，接动名词表示“已发生过的动作”；接不定式表示“现在发生或将要发生的动作”。例如：

I remember having posted the letter today. 我记得今天把那封信发出去了。

I'll remember to post the letter for you. 我会记得帮你将信发出去的。

I regret not telling her the truth before she left. 我后悔在她离开前告诉她实情。

I regret to say I am not prepared well enough for the new post.

很遗憾地说，我还没有为新的职位作好充分的准备。

在begin，start，和cease之后，接动名词表示“强调有意识地开始或停止某动作”；不定式则表示自然、突然地发生的动作。例如：

She began learning to cook before her marriage. 她是婚前开始学烧饭的。

It began to snow yesterday. 昨天开始下雪了。

They started developing the new product in 1999. 1999年他们开始研制那种新产品。

No sooner had we arrived home than it started to rain heavily. 我们刚一到家就下起大雨来了。

stop后接动名词表示要开始动名词表示的动作，而后接不定式则表示终止不定式表示的动作；try后接动名词表示试着干某事，而后接不定式则表示尽力干某事。例如：

Stop talking please. (终止讲话的动作)请不要讲话了。

Let's stop to take a break. （开始休息的动作）让我们停下来休息一会儿。

The boy tried installing his computer and succeed at last.

（试着 “安装” ）那个男孩试着安装他的电脑，最后成功了。

I'll try to finish the composition of the book by October.（尽力“完成”）我要尽力在十月以前完成这本书的写作。

4)动名词作介词的宾语，并与介词一起构成介词短语在句子里担当定语、状语、表语，如：

I'm looking forward to your coming next time.（作状语）我期待着您下一次的到来。

The simplest kind of advertising is the classified ad.（作定语）最简单的广告是分类广告。

They are against using so many animals in experiments. 他们反对用如此多的动物去做试验。

2．动名词的时态

（1）一般式

如果无意具体说明“动名词动作”发生于什么时候，或是“动名词动作”与“谓语动作”是同时发生时，就只用动名词的一般式。

Seeing is believing. 眼见为实。

He is fond of watching sports-games.（一般式）他喜欢观看体育竞赛。

She likes making herself busy all the day.（一般式）她喜欢使自己终日忙忙碌碌的。

I hate talking with such people. 我讨厌与这样的人说话。

Being careless is not a good habit. 粗心不是一个好习惯。

（2）被动式

动名词的逻辑主语同时也是动名词动作的承受者，动名词用被动语态。它的一般式表示的动作与谓语动词动作同时发生，或在其前发生。如：

I don’t like being laughed at in public. 在公共场合下，我不喜欢被别人嘲笑。

它的完成式表示的动作发生在谓语动词之前。如：

I am very pleased at your having been honored with a medal.

我很高兴你能获得这样的奖牌。

He came to the party without being invited．他未被邀请就来到了晚会。

（3）完成式

当我们要强调说明“动名词动作”发生于“谓语动作”之前时，多用动名词的完成式，当动名词在句子中的逻辑主语在意义上是动名词动作的宾语时，我们应当用动名词的被动形式。 “being + 过去分词”是动名词被动式的一般形式；“having + been +”是动名词被动式的完成形式。例如：

The secretary was scolded for not having finished typing the report in time.

那位秘书因没有按时将报告打印出来而受责备。

I regret having said some rude words to my brother. 我后悔对我弟弟说了些粗话。

We have no idea of their having done such kind of thing. 我们不知道他们干过这种事情。

People hate being praised for nothing. 人们不喜欢无缘无故的赞扬。

The problem is far from being solved. 这问题远没得到解决。

She didn't mind being left alone at home. 她不介意被一人留在家里。

He can't remember having been scolded by his boss for that matter.

他不记得老板曾为那件事责备过他。

We remembered having seen the film. 我们记得看过这部电影。

（4）完成被动式：

He forgot having been taken to Guangzhou when he was five years old.

他忘记五岁时曾被带到广州去过。

（5）否定式：not + 动名词

I regret not following his advice. 我后悔没听他的劝告。

（6）复合结构：物主代词（或名词所有格）+ 动名词

He suggested our trying it once again. 他建议我们再试一次。

His not knowing English troubled him a lot.

他不懂英语给他带来许多麻烦。

（三）分词

分词是一种非谓语动词,在句中不能单独作谓语,没有人称和数的变化,它可以带宾语、状语和表语构成分词短语。分词有现在分词和过去分词两种。现在分词和过去分词主要差别在于：现在分词表示“主动和进行”，过去分词表示“被动和完成”(不及物动词的过去分词不表示被动，只表示完成)。分词在句中可作状语、定语、补足语和表语。

1．分词的句法功能

（1）分词作状语

分词在句子中作状语，可以表示时间、条件、原因、结果、让步、伴随等。分词做状语时，它的逻辑主语与句子的主语一致。作状语的分词相当于一个状语从句。分词在句子中作状语，使用何种分词，要取决于分词与句子主语的关系：主谓关系用现在分词，动宾或被动关系用过去分词。

Hearing the news, they all jumped with joy. 听到消息后,他们都欣喜若狂。

The students went out of the classroom, laughing and talking.学生们边说边笑地走出教室。

Accompanied by his friend, he marketed his products. 在朋友的陪同下，他去推销了。

“while (when, once, until, if , though等连词)＋分词”结构作状语，如：

When leaving the factory, she was satisfied with the quality of the products.

离开工厂时，她对产品的质量很满意。

With the test finished, they began to order.测试完了之后，他们开始订货。

The goods dispatched, they faxed a shipping advice to the buyer.

货物装运后，他们便向买家发出装运通知。

（2）分词作定语

分词作定语时，单个的分词通常放在被修饰的名词之前，分词短语一般置于所修饰的中心词后面。现在分词修饰的是发出该动作的名词(即与名词有主谓关系)，过去分词修饰承受该动作的名词(即与名词是动宾关系)。

We will go on with our experiment as soon as we get the added fund.

一旦我们拿到追加的资金，我们就会继续实验。

This is really an exhausting day to all of us!

对我们所有的人来说，这真是令人疲惫不堪的一天。

We can see the part of the moon lighted by sunlight.

我们能看到被太阳光照射到的月球的那部分。

（3）分词作补足语

分词在see, watch, hear, observe, notice, feel, find, glimpse, glance等感官动词和look at, listen to等短语动词以及have, keep, get, catch, leave, set, start, send等使役动词后面与名词或代词构成复合宾语，作宾语补语的成分。

On the top of the hill, we could see smoke rising from the chimneys in the village.

站在山顶,我们可以看到炊烟从村子里面的烟窗里弥漫出来。

The little boy sat there and watched the trains roaring by.

小男孩坐在那里,注视着火车呼啸而过。

I am sorry to have kept you waiting for such a long time.

对不起,让你等了很久了。

I had the goods stowed, but the stowage charges would be at your cost.

我已经让人理仓了，但是理仓费由你们负担。

（4）分词作表语

分词作表语通常看作形容词来用。现在分词表示主语的性质，而且主语多为物；过去分词表示主语的感受或状态，主语多为人。

The film “Pearl Harbor” is really exciting. I am excited about it.

电影《珍珠港》真刺激。我真是兴奋不已啊。

His response to the enquiry was quite disappointing. I felt disappointed at his response.

他对询单的回复很令人失望。我对他的回复很失望。

Our customer service is satisfying. You will be satisfied with our customer service.

在语义上，现在分词和过去分词反映的心理状态不同。前者有 “令人……”的含义；过去分词则有“感到……”的意思。

The soccer match last night was thrilling.（令人紧张）

The soccer fans were delighted.（感到高兴）

The young generation is quite promising. 年轻一代大有希望。

The story sounds touching. 这个故事听起来很动人。

The power of words is surprising.语言的力量是惊人的。

He did not seem at all interested in the subject. 他对这个题目似乎一点也不感到有兴趣。

My home village is surrounded by beautiful hills. 我的家乡四面环山。

其他例子有：

amazing(令人惊异的)amazed（感到惊讶）

exciting （令人激动）excited （感到激动）

interesting （有趣的）interested （感兴趣）

surprising （令人惊异的）surprised （感到惊异）

boring （令人厌烦的）bored （感到厌烦）

inspiring （令人鼓舞的）inspired （受鼓舞）

moving （令人感动的）moved （受感动）

discouraging （令人沮丧的）discouraged （感到沮丧）

2．分词的时态和词态

(1)一般式：现在分词的一般式说明分词表示的动作和句中谓语动作同时发生或表示分词表示的动作发生后，句中谓语动作立刻发生；过去分词的一般式说明分词表示的动作在句中谓语动作之前发生或者某些持续性动作的分词表示与句中谓语动作并无先后之分。例如：

One day a few weeks later I found myself sitting in a village house，facing an old man of about eighty.

Stripping off his padded coat, he jumped into the water and rescued the child from drowning.

Compared with her achievements, her shortcomings are, after all, only secondary.

The element shown by the symbol H is hydrogen.

(2)现在分词的完成式：现在分词的完成式表示的动作在句中谓语动作之前发生，具有主动意义。例如：

Having finished reading the book, she put it aside.

Having made the choice, they began to test the material.

Not having received an answer, I wrote again.

Having been in operation for many hours, the motor became rather hot.

Having lost our way, we were obliged to spend the night in the wood.

(3)现在分词的被动式：一般式现在分词的被动式表示的动作和句中谓语动词表示的动作同时发生；完成式现在分词被动语态表示的动作在谓语动词表示的动作之前发生。例如：

Being pushed, the ball starts to move.

The building being built is for the professors of our institute.

While being turned into water, ice takes in much heat.

You may find this kind of products being sold everywhere.

Not having been tested, this new-type oil pump can't be put into production.

3．分词的独立主格结构

分词短语在句中作状语，一般没有自己的主语，句中的主语通常就是分词短语的逻辑主语，但有时分词短语可有自己的主语，用名词或代词表示，放在分词短语之前，他们之间有着逻辑上的主谓关系，这种结构即为分词复合结构，也称为分词独立结构。分词复合结构通常在句中作状语，表示时间，原因，条件或伴随情况，附加说明等，也可放在句首或句末，用逗号与句子其他部分隔开。分词复合结构主要有以下形式：

（1）分词逻辑主语+分词

Everything having been prepared, they began to make a new experiment.

The meeting being over, we held a discussion.

Weather permitting, we shall make a trip to Mount Tai

Science and technology modernized, industry and agriculture will develop rapidly.

Lei Feng lives on, his story lighting up the hearts of millions of people.

There are many kinds of materials, each having its own uses.

（2）由with（或without）+分词逻辑主语+分词

这种结构多表示伴随情况或作补充说明，有时也可表示时间，条件，原因等。例如：

Almost all metals are good conductors, with silver being the best.

几乎所有金属都是良导体，以银为最好。

An object may be hot without the motion in it being visible.

一个物体即使其内部运动无法看到，却可能是热的。

With night coming on, bats came out. 夜幕降临，蝙蝠出来了。

That boy was being scolded by his father with his head bowed. 那男孩正低头挨他父亲骂。

He left the room angrily, without a word more spoken.他愤怒地离开房间，一句话也不说。

（3）由There being+主语，构成这种结构多表示原因。例如：

There being a lot of books to read, he often studied till midnight.

因为有许多书要读，他经常学习到深夜。

There being no spare parts, the equipment could not be repaired at once.

由于没有备件，设备无法立即修复。

There being an important meeting to attend, he hurried back by plane.

因为要参加一个重要会议，他急忙成飞机赶回。

There being nothing important, she didn't want to trouble you.

因为没有重要事，她不想打扰你。

（4）分词复合结构的逻辑谓语部分如果是“系-表”结构，分词being常常不出现，而仅有表语，常为形容词，副词，名词，介词短语或不定式。例如：

The question (being)easy, I got full marks.

The war over, all the Chinese People's Volunteers came back to China.

（5）独立的分词短语

有些分词短语和句中的主语并不发生直接的关系，大多已构成固定的习惯用语，仅起插入语作用，可看作独立成分。例如：

Generally speaking, this book is not very interesting.

Judging from your accent, you must be from Shandong.

Beginning tomorrow, we'll get up at half pass five.

十一、动词的时态

英语的时态是一种动词形式，不同的时态可以表示不同的时间。从时间上看，英语的时态有现在、过去、将来、过去将来之分。从动作上看，有一般、进行、完成、完成进行四种。

（一）一般现在时

一般现在时是以动词的原形表示的；如果主语是第三人称单数，要在动词后面加-s或-es，其用法如下：

1. 一般现在时表示经常性或习惯性的动作，常与表示频度的时间状语every day, usually, always, often, sometimes, on Sunday等连用。如：

I go to school at 6 every morning. 每天早上我七点去上学。

Tom wears a belt round his waist. 汤姆腰里系着一根皮带。

The train goes backwards and forwards between the two towns.

这列火车在两座城市间来回开。

I leave home for school at 7 every morning. 每天我7点离开家去学校。

2. 一般现在时表示客观存在及普遍真理。如：

Summer follows spring. 春天之后是夏天。

The sun rises in the east. 太阳从东方升起。

The earth moves around the sun.

Shanghai lies in the east of China.

3. 一般现在时表示格言或警句。如：

Pride goes before a fall. 骄者必败。

4. 一般现在时表示目前的情况或状态、性格、特征、能力。

He works hard. 他努力工作。

Does he like sports? 他喜欢体育运动吗？

I am a teacher. 我是教师。

Peter writes good Chinese but does not speak well.

彼得汉语写得不错，讲的可不行。

5. 以here, there等开始的倒装句，表示动作正在进行。如：

Here comes the bus. = The bus is coming. 车来了。

There goes the bell. = The bell is ringing. 铃响了。

6. 一般现在时表将来的将来

一些动词如go, come, leave, start, stay, return, begin等，用一般现在时表示将要发生的动作。

School begins on February 5. 学校2月5日开学。

The meeting is at nine tomorrow morning. 会议明天上午9点开始。

在连词when, before, until, if, as soon as引导的表示将来行为的状语从句中，常用一般现在时代替一般将来时。

If it is fine tomorrow, we shall visit the Great Wall. 如果明天天晴，我们就去游长城。

Call me as soon as he arrives. 他一到，你就给我打电话。

（二）一般过去时

1. 表示在过去某一时间点发生的动作或所处的状态。

He arrived in Hangzhou an hour ago. 他一小时前到达杭州。

Where were you just now? 你刚才在哪里？

2. 表示在过去某一段时间里反复出现的动作或状态。

Their children often went hungry in the old days. 在旧社会，他们的孩子经常挨饿。

During his middle school year, he played football nearly every day.他中学时代几乎天天踢足球。

3. 表示主语过去的特征或性格等。

At that time she spoke very good English. 那时她英语说得很好。

She was an orphan and gave piano lessons to rich children.

她是个孤儿，给有钱人家的孩子上钢琴课。

4. 用“used to + 动词原形”或“would + 动词原形”，也可以表示过去经常或反复发生的动作。

I used to leave for school at 7:30. 我过去总是7点半离家去上学。

Whenever he had a chance, our teacher would have a talk with us.

我们老师一有机会就同我们谈心。

5. 一般过去时往往和明确的过去时间状语连用，常用的状语有：yesterday, last night, two days ago, in 1996, before liberation, at that time等，也常和when, if等连词引导的状语从句连用。

Did you play volleyball yesterday afternoon?昨天下午你打排球了吗？

My father, when he was a child, worked 15 hour for the landlord a day.

我父亲很小的时候每天为地主工作15个小时。

6. 一般过去时可与today, this week, this month等时间状语连用。

I saw him today. 我今天见到过他。

He came late three times this week. 这星期他迟到了3次。

（三）一般将来时

1. will / shall＋动词原形, 表示将来会出现的动作或状态，纯粹的将来，预料将要发生的动作或情况或表示由于习惯倾向而会经常发生的。

It will be fine tomorrow. 明天天气晴朗。

I shall never forget it. 我永远也不会忘记。

Will it rain tomorrow？明天会下雨吗？

It will be stormy tomorrow. 明天将有暴风雨。

2. “be going to+动词原形”：

be going to 相当于一个助动词，与其后的动词原形一起构成句子的谓语。

1)表示近期或事先已经决定或安排要去做的事情。如：

I'm going to buy a computer this year.我打算今年买台电脑。

2)表示有某种迹象表明必将发生事情。如：Look at the black clouds! It's going to rain. 看看这乌云！快下雨了。注意：当be going to后接go或come时，通常直接用现在进行时来表示。例如：

Where is he going? 他去那里？

She's coming right away. 她马上就来。

3. “be to+动词原形”表示按计划要发生的事或征求对方意见。这种结构表示计划中约定的或按职责、义务要求必须去做的事或即将发生的动作。

We are to have a meeting next Saturday. 下个周日我们有个会。

The boy is to go to school tomorrow. 这个男孩明天要去上学。

Are we to go on with this work? 我们继续干吗？

The president is to visit China next week.总统下周来访中国。

4．“be about to+动词原形”表示即将发生的动作，意为：很快，马上。后面一般不跟时间状语。这一结构用于表示客观就要发生的事，表示马上就要发生。一般不再与时间状语连用。

Don't go out. We're about to have a meeting. 别出去了,我们很快就开会了。

I was about to start when it began to rain.我刚要出发就下起雨来了。

He is about to leave for Shenyang.他将要离开去沈阳。

We are about to leave. 我们马上就走。

The film is about to begin. 电影马上就要开始了。

（四）现在进行时

1．现在进行时的结构

其结构为“助动词be的现在式（am, is, are）+ 现在分词”。如：

We are planting trees. 我们正在植树。

The Greens are having lunch. 格林一家人正在吃午饭。

2．现在进行时的用法

（1）表示此时此刻或现阶段正在进行的动作。如：

They're having a meeting. 他们在开会。

I'm studying at an evening school. 我在上夜校。

（2）表示计划或安排好了的将来动作，常与一个表示将来的时间状语连用。如：

Mike is coming home on Thursday. 迈克星期四回来。

They're having a party next week. 下星期他们将开一个晚会。

注：表示安排将要做的事，人作主语，宜用现在进行时；事物作主语，宜用一般现在时。

（3）现在进行时与always, often, forever等连用表示赞扬、厌烦等语气。如：

You're always interrupting me! 你老打断我的话!(抱怨)

My father is always losing his car keys. 我爸老丢车钥匙。(不满)

She's always helping people. 她老是帮助别人。(赞扬)

（4）现在进行时在时间和条件状语从句中，代替过去将来时。如：

He promised to buy me a computer if he got a raise.

注意：像 be, think, understand, love, have, own, see, hear, find, belong to 等静态动词通常不用于进行时。

（五）过去完成时

过去完成时表示在过去某一时间或动作之前已经发生或完成了的动作，即“过去的过去”。

---|----------|---------------|--------------->

那时以前那时现在

1．过去完成时的构成：

过去完成时由“助动词 had + 过去分词”构成，其中had通用于各种人称。

They had already had breakfast before they arrived at the hotel.

She had finished writing the composition by 10 ：00 this morning.

2．过去完成时的判断依据

（1）由时间状语来判定

一般说来，各种时态都有特定的时间状语。与过去完成时连用的时间状语有：

by + 过去的时间点。如：

I had finished reading the novel by nine o'clock last night.

by the end of + 过去的时间点。如：

We had learned over two thousand English words by the end of last term.

before + 过去的时间点。如：

They had planted six hundred trees before last Wednesday.

（2）由“过去的过去”来判定

过去完成时表示“过去的过去”，是指过去某一动作之前已经发生或完成的动作，即动作有先后关系，动作在前的用过去完成时，在后的用一般过去时。这种用法常出现在：

宾语从句中

当宾语从句的主句为一般过去时，且从句的动作先于主句的动作时，从句要用过去完成时。在told, said, knew, heard, thought等动词后的宾语从句。如：

She said that she had seen the film before.

状语从句中

在时间、条件、原因、方式等状语从句中，主、从句的动作发生有先后关系，动作在前的，要用过去完成时，动作在后的要用一般过去时。如：

When I got to the station, the train had already left.

After he had finished his homework, he went to bed.

注意：before, after引导的时间状语从句中，由于before和after本身已表达了动作的先后关系，若主、从句表示的动作紧密相连，则主、从句都用一般过去时。如：

Where did you study before you came here?

After he closed the door, he left the classroom.

（3）根据上、下文来判定。

I met Wang Tao in the street yesterday. We hadn't seen each other since he went to Beijing.

3．过去完成时的主要用法

（1）过去完成时表示一个动作或状态在过去某一时间或动作之前已经完成或结束，即发生在“过去的过去”。如：

When I woke up, it had stopped raining.

我醒来时，雨已经停了。（主句的动作发生在“过去的过去”）

（2）过去完成时是一个相对的时态，表示的是“过去的过去”，只有和过去某一时间或某一动作相比较时才使用它。如：

He told me that he had written a new book. (had written发生在told之前)

（3）过去完成时需要与一个表示过去的时间状语连用，它不能离开过去时间而独立存在。此时多与 already, yet, still, just, before, never等时间副词及by, before, until 等引导的短语或从句连用。如：

Before she came to China, Grace had taught English in a middle school for about five years.

Peter had collected more than 300 Chinese stamps by the time he was ten.

(4)过去完成时表示某一动作或状态在过去某时之前已经开始，一直延续到这一过去时间，而且动作尚未结束，仍然有继续下去的可能。如：

By the end of last year, he had worked in the factory for twenty years.（had worked 已有了20年，还有继续进行下去的可能）

（六）将来完成时

1．将来完成时的构成为“shall/will +have +过去分词”

I shall have finished the work by the end of this week. 我将在本周末前完成这项工作。

2．将来完成时表示在将来某一时间之前完成的动作，并往往对将来某一时间产生影响，它常与表将来的时间状语连用。

I shall have finished reading the book by the end of this week.

我将在本周末前读完这本书。

Before long, he will have forgotten all about the matter.

不久以后，他很快就会把这件事全忘了。

3．将来完成时也可与ever, never, soon 等时间状语连用。

Will you soon have finished laying the table? 你会快点把餐具摆好吗？

Will they ever have done with their talking? 他们谈话还有完没有？

4．将来完成时往往可以和时间或条件状语从句连用

If you come at seven o'clock, I shall not yet have finished dinner.

如果你7点钟来，我还没有吃完晚饭。

（七）过去进行时

1．过去进行时的结构

过去进行时态的句子结构为“was/were + 现在分词”

I was reading at this time yesterday evening. 昨晚这个时候，我正在读书。

2．过去进行时的用法。

（1）表示过去某一时刻或过去某段时间内正在进行的动作，一般要有表示过去时间的状语。

At that time she was working in Oxford. 那时，她正在牛津大学工作。

It was raining at 6 o'clock this morning. 今天早晨六点钟天正下着雨。

What were you doing when I phoned you last night? 昨晚我给你打电话时你在干什么?

（2）可用来表示由过去某时持续到另一时间的过去动作。

He was studying in Cambridge between 1999 and 2001.

在1999年和2001年那段时间，他在剑桥学习。

From January to March I was travelling in Egypt. 从3月份到4月份期间，我在埃及旅游。

这种时间状语亦可同一般过去时连用，如：

He worked from morning till night yesterday. 昨天他从早到晚地工作。

（3）表示故事发生的背景。

It was a sunny morning. Some people were sitting on the riverbank. Some were walking with their dogs.

Several boys were playing football nearby...

一个阳光明媚的清晨。河堤上坐着几个人。有的人在溜狗。不远处有几个男童在踢足球.

（4）与某些动词连用时，代替过去将来时。

He telephoned me, saying that his aunt was coming to see me soon.

他打电话给我，说他姨妈很快就要看我了。

这类动词有 come来, go去, leave离开, start开始, stay逗留等。主语必须是人。

（八）现在完成时

1．现在完成时态的句子结构由：助动词have(has)+过去分词构成

I have studied English for five years. 我已学了5年英语了。

2．现在完成时的用法

（1）现在完成时用来表示现在之前已发生过或完成的动作或状态,但其结果却和现在有联系,也就是说,动作或状态发生在过去但它的影响现在还存在。

I have lost my wallet.(含义是:现在我没有钱花了。)

Jane has laid the table.(含义是:已可以吃饭了。)

Michael has been ill.(含义是:现在仍然很虚弱。)

He has returned from abroad. (含义是:现在已在此地。)

（2）现在完成时可以用来表示发生在过去某一时刻的,持续到现在的情况,常与for,since连用。

Mary has been ill for three days.

I have lived here since 1998.

（3）现在完成时往往同表示不确定的过去时间状语连用,如already, yet, just, before, recently, lately等。

He has already obtained a scholarship.

I haven't seen much of him recently (lately).

We have seen that film before.

Have they found the missing child yet?

（4）现在完成时常常与表示频度的时间状语连用,如often, sometimes, ever, never, twice, on several occasion等。

Have you ever been to Beijing?

I have never heard Bunny said anything against her.

I have used this pen only three times. It is still good.

George has met that gentleman on several occasions.

（5）现在完成时还往往可以同表示现在时间在内的时间状语连用,如now, up to these few days/weeks/months/years, this morning/week/month/year, now, just, today, up to present, so far等。

Peter has written six papers so far.

Man has now learned to release energy from the nucleus of the atom.

There has been too much rain in San Francisco this year.

The friendly relations and cooperation between our two countries have been enhanced in the past few years.

Up to the present, everything has been successful.

（6）现在完成时表示现在之前已完成的动作,虽然其效果或影响仍然存在但已不再继续,但是有一些现在完成时的句子,在后面加上for+一段时间,则现在完成时的动作就表示延续性。

Thomas has studied Russian. (现在不再学俄语)

Thomas has studied Russian for three years. 托马斯学俄语已经3年了。（现在还在学）

（7）现在完成时还可以用来表示过去的一个时间到现在这段时间内重复发生的动作。

We have had four texts this semester.

十二、句子的种类与句子成分

（一）句子的种类

英语句子按其作用可分为陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句四种。

1．陈述句

陈述句是陈述一个事实或者说话人的看法。它包括肯定句和否定句两种。陈述句在书写时句末用句号，而在朗读时则用降调。

He is six years old; She didn't hear of you before.

（1）肯定句：基本结构为主+谓

He went to London to pass his holiday.

He is a student. 他是一名学生。

I have been to Beijing for several times. 我曾经到过北京几次。

Lucy can swim. 露西会游泳。

（2）否定句：

1)如果句子的谓语动词是be, have 或有助动词和情态动词，在它们之后加not 构成否定式。

He is not a student. 他不是学生。

Lucy can't swim. 露西不会游泳。

2)如果句子的动词是行为动词而不是助动词或情态动词，在谓语前加do的任何形式再加not。

I don't like the book. 我不喜欢这本书。

He doesn't go to work by bus. 他不乘公交车上班。

I didn't finish my homework yesterday. 昨天我没有完成作业。

3)其他否定词如：no, hardly, never 等也可构成陈述句的否定式。

There are no pens or pencils on the desk. 书桌上既没有钢笔也没有铅笔。

We can't live without water or air. 没有水和空气我们无法生存。

4)在某些句子中按语义本应放在that从句中的否定词not, 被移至主句的谓语动词中，这种否定结构主要用于表示“相信”，“同意”等动词，如believe, expect, imagine, suppose, think, 这种语法叫做“否定转移”。

I don't think it will be very cold today. 我认为今天不会很冷。

She doesn't think I am right. 她认为我是不正确的。

Lucy can't believe they will lose the game. 露西相信他们不会输掉比赛的。

2．疑问句（一般、特殊、选择、反意）

疑问句指提出问题，请对方回答的句子。疑问句句末要用问号。按结构可分为四种：一般疑问句、特殊疑问句、选择疑问句和反意疑问句。

（1）一般疑问句

一般是由yes或no回答，一般疑问句的结构为：be/助动词/情态动词+主语+谓语，如：

Can you swim to the other side? 你能游到对岸吗？

Yes, I can. 是的，我能。

Have you locked the door? 你锁门了吗？

No, I haven't. 不，没有锁。

Are they your friends? 他们是你的朋友吗？

Does he go to school on foot? 他是步行去上学吗？

（2）特殊疑问句

特殊疑问句也可称为“wh”-question，因为它们多数都以who, where, when, which, whose, why这类词开头，如：

Who is it on the phone? 谁来的电话？

How many oranges can you see in the picture? 你能在图画上看到多少个橘子？

Where did you last see it? 你最后一次看到这东西时是在什么地方呢？

特殊疑问句的结构一般为：特殊疑问词+一般疑问句，即特殊疑问词 + be/助动词/情态动词 + 主语 +谓语/表语（+其他），如：

What can be done about it？对此能做些什么呢？

Which are yours? 哪些是你的？

Why didn't you tell me? 你为什么没有告诉我？

（3）选择疑问句

选择疑问句一般提出两种或两种以上的可能，问对方选择哪一种。其结构可用一般疑问句，也可用特殊疑问句，如：

Is it right or wrong? 是对还是错？

Were you or he there? 是你还是他在那儿？

Are they reading, chatting or watching television? 他们是在看书，聊天还是在看电视？

Which do you like better, coffee or milk? 你更喜欢喝什么，咖啡还是牛奶？

What color is it, red, blue or yellow? 它是什么颜色，红的，蓝的还是黄的？

Where are you going, to the classroom or to the library? 你要去哪儿，教室还是图书馆？

（4）反意疑问句

反意疑问句是一种常用于口语的疑问句，这种问句由两部分组成，前一部分是陈述句，后一部分是附加的一简短问句，中间用逗号隔开因此反意疑问句又称附加疑问句。如果陈述句是肯定句式，附加问句用否定句式；如果陈述句是否定句式，附加问句用肯定句式。附加问句一般由“be/助动词/情态动词 +代词”构成，如：

He is your teacher, isn't he? 他是你的老师，是吧？

Li Lei gets up at six in the morning, doesn't he? 李雷每天早上6点钟起床，是吗？

They didn't clean the classroom yesterday, did they?他们昨天没有打扫教室，是吗？

You're coming, aren't you? 你会来的，不是吗？

She can't swim, can she? 她不会游泳，对吗？

3．祈使句

祈使句主要用来表示请求、命令、劝告、建议、号召、祝愿或叮嘱等，祈使句的主语一般是第二人称you，但往往省略；谓语是动词原形且位于句首，如：

Step this way, please. 请这边走。

Make yourself at home. 请不要拘束。

Don't touch me! 别碰我！

Have a good time. 愿你玩得痛快。

（1）祈使句的否定式一般为在动词原形前加don't，即Don't+动词原形，如：

Don't be in such a hurry. 别那么匆匆忙忙。

Don't care what she thinks. 不要在乎她想些什么。

Don't talk with each other! 不要讲话。

（2）let引导的祈使句

“Let me + 动词原形”，意为“请让我……”，“Let's + 动词原形”，意为“让我们……”，表示建议或请求，通常表示包括说话者在内。

Let's think about it. 我们来想这件事吧。

Let's do it ourselves. 让我们自己来做吧。

Let me carry the box for you. 让我替你们拿着这只箱子吧。

Let me through. 请让我过去。

4．感叹句

感叹句用来表示说话时的一种较为强烈的感情，如：喜悦、赞叹、惊异、愤怒、厌恶等。感叹句的构成为“感叹部分 + 陈述部分（主语+谓语）”，感叹部分由感叹词what或how来引导，陈述部分为整个感叹句的主语及谓语。

what 引导的感叹句的结构一般为：what + (a/an)+ 形容词 +名词 +陈述部分（主语+谓语）；how 引导的感叹句的结构一般为：how + 形容词/副词 +其余部分！如：

What a nice day it is! 多好的天气！

What an opportunity it is! 多么好的机会！

How silly you are! 你真傻！

How beautiful it is! 多美啊！

（二）句子成分

组成句子的各个部分叫句子成分。英语句子成分有主语、谓语、表语、宾语、定语、状语、补语等。

1．主语：主语是一个句子所叙述的主体，一般位于句首。但在there be结构、疑问句（当主语为疑问词时）和倒装句中，主语位于谓语、助动词或情态动词后面。主语可由名词、代词、数词、不定式、动名词、名词化的形容词和主语从句等表示。

During the 1990s, American country music has become more and more popular.（名词）

We often speak English in class.（代词）

One-third of the students in this class are girls.（数词）

To swim in the river is a great pleasure.（不定式）

Smoking does harm to the health.（动名词）

The rich should help the poor.（名词化的形容词）

When we are going to have an English test has not been decided.（主语从句）

It is necessary to master a foreign language.（it作形式主语，真正的主语为后面的不定式）

Beijing is a beautiful city. 北京是一座美丽的城市。

Who is speaking, please? 请问你是哪位？

Two will be enough. 两个就够了。

To act like that is childish. 这样做是幼稚的。

Dancing is fool. 跳舞很有意思。

2．谓语：谓语说明主语所做的动作或具有的特征和状态。动词在句中作谓语，一般放在主语之后。谓语有：简单谓语，一个动词或动词短语构成；复合谓语，由情态动词或其他助动词加动词原形构成或由系动词加表语构成。

You may keep the book for two weeks.

He has caught a bad cold.

She got here at six. 她是6点钟到这儿的。

He has fallen in love with her. 他爱上她了。

The girl felt cold. 那个女孩感到很冷。

Can you speak French? 你会讲法语吗？

We must be careful. 我们一定要小心。

3．表语：表语用以说明主语的身份、特征和状态，它一般位于系动词（如be, become, get, look, grow, turn, seem等）之后。表语一般由名词、代词、形容词、分词、数词、不定式、动名词、介词短语、副词及表语从句表示。

Our teacher of English is an American.（名词）

Is it yours?（代词）

The weather has turned cold.（形容词）

The speech is exciting.（分词）

Three times seven is twenty one?（数词）

His job is to teach English.（不定式）

His hobby（爱好）is playing football.（动名词）

The machine must be out of order.（介词短语）

Time is up. The class is over.（副词）

The truth is that he has never been abroad.（表语从句）

What nationality is the man? 那个人是哪国人？

Money isn't everything. 金钱不是一切。

She's now twenty-two. 现在她22岁了。

She looked nervous and apologetic. 她显得紧张而又还着歉意。

The window is broken. 窗户破了。

Her hobby is painting. 她的爱好是画画。

All you have to do is to listen. 你只需要听。

4．宾语：宾语表示动作的对象或承受者，一般位于及物动词和介词后面。

They went to see an exhibition（展览）yesterday.（名词）

The heavy rain prevented me from coming to school on time.（代词）

How many dictionaries do you have? I have five.（数词）

They helped the old with their housework yesterday.（名词化形容词）

He pretended not to see me.（不定式短语）

I enjoy listening to popular music.（动名词短语）

I think（that）he is fit for his office.（宾语从句）

I would like a cup of tea. 我想要一杯茶。

They won't hurt us. 他们不会伤害我们。

If you add 5 to 5, you get 10.5加5等于10。

I shall do my possible. 我将尽力而为。

Remember to close the window. 记得关上窗户。

5．宾语补足语：英语中有些及物动词，除有一个直接宾语以外，还要有一个宾语补语，才能使句子的意义完整。带有宾语补足语的一般句型为：某些及物动词（如make等）+宾语+宾补。宾补可由名词、形容词、副词、不定式、分词、介词短语和从句充当。

His father named him Dongming.（名词）

They painted their boat white.（形容词）

Let the fresh air in.（副词）

You mustn't force him to lend his money to you.（不定式短语）

We saw her entering the room.（现在分词）

We found everything in the lab in good order.（介词短语）

We will soon make our city what your city is now.（从句）

We made him our monitor. 我们选举他做我们的班长。

Please keep the classroom clean and tidy. 请保持教室安静整洁。

I want to have my hair cut.我想要剪头发了。

6．定语：修饰名词或代词的词、短语或从句称为定语。定语可由以下等成分表示：

Guilin is a beautiful city.（形容词）

China is a developing country; America is a developed country.（分词）

There are thirty women teachers in our school.（名词）

His rapid progress in English made us surprised.（代词）

Our monitor is always the first to enter the classroom.（不定式短语）

The teaching plan for next term has been worked out.（动名词）

He is reading an article about how to learn English.（介词短语）

The black bike is mine. 那辆黑色的自行车是我们。

a family dinner party 家庭宴会

cat food 猫食

Her promise to write was forgotten. 她忘了答应要写信的事。

This is a map of China. 这是一幅中国地图。

7．状语：修饰动词、形容词、副词或整个句子，说明动作或状态特征的句子成分，叫做状语。可由以下形式表示：

Light travels most quickly.（副词及副词性词组）

He has lived in the city for ten years.（介词短语）

He is proud to have passed the national college entrance examination.（不定式短语）

He is in the room making a model plane.（分词短语）

Wait a minute.（名词）

Once you begin, you must continue.（状语从句）

状语种类如下：

How about meeting again at six?（时间状语）

Last night she didn't go to the dance party because of the rain.（原因状语）

I shall go there if it doesn't rain.（条件状语）

Mr. Smith lives on the third floor.（地点状语）

She put the eggs into the basket with great care.（方式状语）

She came in with a dictionary in her hand.（伴随状语）

In order to catch up with the others, I must work harder.（目的状语）

He was so tired that he fell asleep immediately.（结果状语）

She works very hard though she is old.（让步状语）

I am taller than he is.（比较状语）

He left school in 1995. 他毕业于1995年。

Let's all sit under this tree. 咱们都坐在这棵树下。

I stared at her in amazement.我惊异地凝视着她。

With all the rain, there'll be a good crop. 有这么多雨水，收成会很好。

He didn't study hard, so he failed in the exam. 他没努力学习，因此这次考试不及格。

十三、常用句型

英语常用句型有三种：强调、倒装和省略。

（一）强调

所谓强调，就是指要突出句子中的某一个部分，使其显得更加重要。

1．“It is + 被强调部分 + that/who + 句子其他部分”是使用最广的强调句型。除了谓语动词不能强调外，句子中其他成分，如主语、状语、宾语或宾语补足语都可以用该句型加以强调。

（1）强调主语

被强调的主语是人时，可用It is/was ... that/who ...，但如果被强调的部分既包括人又包括物，只能用that。

—It was he that/who bought a camera yesterday. 是他昨天买了一架照相机。

—It is the famous writer and his works that have aroused great interest among the students. 在学生中引起极大的兴趣的正是这位著名作家以及他的作品。

（2）强调宾语

It was me that/whom she helped yesterday. 昨天她帮助的人是我。

It is the school and the teachers that they often talk about. 他们经常谈论的是学校和老师。

（3）强调宾语补足语

It was chairman of the meeting that we elected him. 我们选他是做会议的主席。

It was white that we painted the wall. 我们把墙漆成的是白色。

（4）强调状语

英语中的状语种类很多,一般都可以用It is/was ... that ...来强调。

It was in his teens that he left his hometown for Taiwan. 他是在十几岁时离开乡去台湾的。

It is once in a while that he comes to see me. 他现在是偶尔来看看我。

It was in this street that the car accident happened yesterday.

昨天就是在这条街上发生了汽车事故。

（5）强调句的一般疑问句和特殊疑问句

1)强调句的一般疑问句基本句型是：Is/Was + it + that +句子其他成分。

Did he see you in the office just now？

Was it in the office that he saw you just now？他见你的地方是在办公室吗？

Does he often go to the library?

Is it to the library that he often goes? 他经常去的地方是图书馆吗？

2)强调句的特殊疑问句的基本句型是：特殊疑问词+ is/was + it + that + 句子其他成分。

When did you first go to the Great Wall？

When was it that you first went to the Great Wall？你究竟什么时候第一次去长城的？

Where did you go last night?

Who was it that told you about it? 究竟是谁告诉你这件事的？

Why did you keep silent at the meeting？

Why was it that you kept silent at the meeting？你究竟为什么在会上保持缄默？

3)what引导的强调结构

“what从句 + be + 被强调成分”或“被强调成分 + be + what从句”表示强调。

What John wants is a good rest. 约翰想要的是好好休息一下。

What I'd like you to work on is Exercise Two on page 38.

我要你们做的作业是38页上的练习。

（二）倒装

英语句子的语序通常是主语在前，谓语在后，这种语序称作正常语序或自然语序。但有时出于语法或达到某种修辞目的(强调、承上启下、平衡等)的需要，要把谓语动词放在主语前面，这种语序称作倒装(Inversion)语序。将谓语动词完全移至主语之前，称完全倒装(Full Inversion)；如果只是把助动词或情态动词放在主语之前，称为部分倒装。如：

Here goes the bell. （完全倒装）

Then came the chairman. （完全倒装）

Ahead sat an old woman. （完全倒装）

Never have I seen such a performance. （部分倒装）

Nowhere will you find the answer to this question. （部分倒装）

在以下情况经常采用倒装语序：

1. there be结构的倒装

在“there be”(或there + appear to be，come，exist, happen to be, lie, live, occur, remain, seem, seem to be, stand, used to be)结构中，倒装形式为完全倒装。如：

There were many students in the reading room in this evening. 今晚阅览室里有许多学生。

There is a TV set, a stereo system and a number of chairs in the sitting room.

客厅里有一台电视机，一套组合音响和一些椅子。

2. here，there，now，then等引起的倒装

在以here,there,now,then等简短副词引起的句子中(前三个须用一般现在时)，动词往往是be,come,go等时，这类句子大多带有引起注意的含义。如：

Here comes the bus.

公共汽车来了。

Here is the letter you have been looking forward to.

你久盼的信在这儿。

但要注意：如果主语是人称代词，则不用倒装。如：

Here they are. 他们在这儿。

3. 省略if的非真实条件状语从句中的倒装

虚拟结构中的条件从句省去if时，were, had, should须移至主语之前。如：

Had you worked harder at college, you would have got a better job.

如果你在大学期间读书用功些，现在就会找到一份更好的工作。

Were he better qualified, he would apply for the position.

要是他的条件再好些，他就申请这个职位。

4. 副词so， neither， nor等引起的倒装

在用so, nor, neither表示“也/不……”这一类结构其公式是:

肯定: so+be/have/助动词/情态动词＋主语，

否定: Neither(nor)+be/have/助动词/情态动词＋主语。如：

-He has been to Beijing.他去过北京。

-So have I.我也去过。

-They can't answer the question.他们不会回答这个问题。

-Neither can I.我也不会。

5. what，how引起的倒装

以What, how开头的感叹句(表语或宾语提前)。如：

What beautiful weather (it is)!

多好的天气啊！(表语提前)

What a lovely picture he painted!

他画了一张多好的画啊！(宾语提前)

6. 疑问词或连接词引起的倒装

在疑问词或连接词whether等引起的从句中。如：

Whatever you may say, I won't go there.

无论你怎样说，我都不会去那儿。(状语从句中宾语提前)

What book he wants is not clear.

他要什么书还不清楚。(主语从句中宾语提前)

7. 否定词位于句首时引起的倒装

(1)never，seldom，hardly，little，few等引起的倒装

否定词never，seldom，rarely，hardly，barely，scarcely，little，few等位于句首时所引起的倒装句通常为部分倒装形式，如果谓语动词为be的一般现在时或一般过去时，则为完全倒装形式。如：

Never shall I forget the days when you were with us.

我很少有时间去看电影。

(2)nowhere，no longer，no more等引起的倒装

nowhere(无处)，no longer(不再)，no more(也不)等否定词位于句首时所引起的倒装句通常为部分倒装形式，如果谓语动词为be的一般现在时或一般过去时，则为完全倒装形式：

No longer was he in charge of this work.

他不再负责这项工作了。

(3)not until，not a，not in the least等引起的倒装

not until(直到……才)，not a(一个……也没有)，not in the least(一点儿也不)，not for a minute/moment(一点儿也不)等位于句首时，通常引起倒装(not a之后的名词作主语时除外)，其形式通常为部分倒装形式，如果谓语动词为be的一般现在时或一般过去时，则为完全倒装形式。如：

Not until all the demands had been turned down did the workers decide to go on strike.

一直到所有的要求遭到拒绝之后，工人们才决定罢工。

Not once did he talk to me.

他一次也没有和我谈过。

(4)under no circumstances，by no means，in no way等引起的倒装

in/under no circumstances(无论如何不)，by no means (决不)，in no case(无论如何不)，in no way (决不)，on no account (决不可)，on no condition(决不)等短语位于句首时所引起的倒装句通常为部分倒装形式，如果谓语动词为be的一般现在时或一般过去时，则为完全倒装形式。如：

In no case must force be resorted to.

决不准许诉诸武力。

By no means is it true that all English people know their own language well.

并非所有的英国人都通晓本国语。

8. 关联连词位于句首时引起的倒装

(1)not only...but also引起的倒装

not only...but also位于句首所引起的倒装句为部分倒装形式，如果谓语动词为be的一般现在时形式或一般过去时形式，则为完全倒装形式。如： Not only should we not be afraid of difficulties, but also we should try our best to overcome them.

我们不仅应该不怕困难，而且应该尽最大努力去克服它们。

(2)neither...nor引起的倒装

neither...nor位于句首引起的倒装句为部分倒装形式，如果谓语动词为be的一般现在时或一般过去时，则为完全倒装形式。如：

Neither Peter wanted the responsibility，nor did his wife.

彼得不想担此责任，他妻子也不想担此责任。

(3)hardly...when/no sooner...than引起的倒装

hardly/scarcely/barely...when或no sooner...than位于句首所引起的倒装句为部分倒装形式，如果谓语动词为be的一般现在时或一般过去时，则为完全倒装形式。如：

Hardly had he arrived when/No sooner had he arrived than he was asked to leave again.

他刚到就又被请走了。

(4)so...that引起的倒装

so...that位于句首所引起的倒装句为部分倒装形式，如果谓语动词为be的一般现在时或一般过去时，则为完全倒装形式。如：

So angry was he (He so angry)that he couldn't speak.

他如此愤怒，以致说不出话来。

(5)such...that引起的倒装

such...that位于句首所引起的倒装句为部分倒装形式，如果谓语动词为be的一般现在时或一般过去时，则为完全倒装形式。如：

Such was the force of the explosion that all the windows were broken.

爆炸的威力如此之大，以致所有的窗户都被震破了。

9. only引起的倒装

当副词only位于句首并修饰状语或宾语时，引起句子的倒装，其形式通常为部分倒装，如果谓语动词为be的一般现在时或一般过去时，则为完全倒装。如：

Only in this way can you solve this problem.

只有用这种方法，你才可以解决这个问题。

Only yesterday did I finish the book.

到昨天我才读完那本书。

10. 表语位于句首时所引起的倒装

当作表语的形容词、副词、介词短语等位于句首时，常常引起倒装，其形式为完全倒装。

Aristotle says，“Plato is dear to me，but dearer still is truth.”

亚里斯多德说：“吾爱柏拉图，但更爱真理。”

Present at the meeting were Professor Smith，Professor Brown，Sir Hugh and many other celebrities.

到会的有史密斯教授、勃朗教授、休爵士以及许多其他知名人士。

11. 状语位于句首时所引起的倒装

(1)当位于句首的状语是一些表示地点的介词短语或表示运动方向的副词（如away，back，down，in，off，out，up）时，常常引起倒装，其形式为全部倒装。如：

Away went the runners.

赛跑手们刷地跑开了。

Down came the rain.

雨哗地落下来了。

(2)介词短语作地点状语，放在句首，后面跟的是不及物动词be, come, sit live, stand, lie, exist等时常常引起倒装，其形式为全部倒装。如：

Next to the table is a chair.

桌旁有把椅子。

At the South Pole lies Antarctica, the coldest and most desolate region on earth.

南极洲位于南极，它是地球上最寒冷和最荒凉的地区。

12. 状语从句中的倒装

(1)让步状语从句中的倒装

as引导的让步状语从句中的倒装：在as引导的让步状语从句中，位于句首的可以是形容词、名词、副词，还可以是谓语动词的一部分，从而形成从句的部分倒装。如：

Tires as he was, he continued the work.

虽然他累了，但是仍然继续工作。

(2)方式状语从句中的倒装

as引导的方式状语从句一般为正常语序，但是，如果主语比谓语长，可将谓语动词置于主语之前，形成完全倒装。如：

He believed，as did all his family，that the king was the supreme lord.

他和他全家人一样，都认为国王是至高无上的君主。

(3)比较状语从句的倒装

than引导的比较状语从句中的倒装：

由than引导的比较状语从句一般为正常语序。但是，如果主语较长，可将谓语动词置于主语之前，形成完全倒装：

Western Nebraska generally receives less snow than does eastern Nebraska.

内布拉斯加西部地区的降雪通常比东部地区少。

13. the more...，the more...结构中的倒装

在以the more...， the more...引导的倒装结构中，采用部分倒装；如果主句的主语较长，可将谓语动词置于主语之前，形成完全倒装。如：

The more books you read（宾语提前），the wider your knowledge is（表语提前）．

书读得越多，知识就越渊博。

（三）省略

英语中的省略（本讲重点讲主语的省略）。

1．并列复合句中的省略

在并列句中的同等句子成分省略。如：

The boy picked up a coin in the road and （the boy） handed it to a policeman.

这个男孩在马路上拾起一枚硬币并把他交给了警察。

Your advice made me happy but（your advice made）Tom angry .

你的建议使我高兴但使汤姆生气。

We can (win tomorrow's match), and certainly will, win tomorrow's match.

我们能够，而且一定会在明天的比赛中获胜。（前一分句省略谓语+宾语）

I wished (to find him), yet feared to find him. 我又想找到他，又怕找到他。

They can (pay the full fee)and (they)should pay the full fee.

他们能够也应该支付全部费用。

I'll fly to (Guangzhou), but (I'll)drive back from Guangzhou. 我将飞往广州，但开车回来。

2．从句中的省略

（1）状语从句中的省略

状语从句中省略的成分一般与主句相同的主语和谓语的一部分，如：

Once （he was）a worker，Pang Long now becomes a famous singer.

庞龙曾经是个工人，现在变成一位著名的歌手。

Work hard when （you are）young，or you'll regret.

趁年轻要努力学习，要不然你会后悔的。

He looked everywhere as if （he was）in search of something.

他到处看似乎在找什么东西。

The exhibition is more interesting than（it was）expected.

这次展览比被预料的有趣的多。

Olympic gold medallist hurdler Liu Xiang opened his lips as if （he were） to speak.

奥林匹克金牌获得者跨栏运动员刘翔张开嘴好像要说什么。

Her father told her to be careful when （she was） crossing the street.

当她过马路时父亲告诉她要当心。

Unless （it is）necessary，you'd better not refer to the dictionary.

如果没有必要，你最好不要查字典。

（2）定语从句中的省略

一般说来，在限制性定语从句中，作宾语的关系代词 that，which，whom 可以省略。

Is this reason （that） he explained at the meeting for his carelessness in his work？

这就是他在会上解释他工作中粗心的原因吗？

This is the first time （when/that） he had trouble with the boss.这是他第一次麻烦老板。

I don't like the way （that/in which） you laugh at her.我不喜欢你嘲笑他的行为。

（3）宾语从句中的省略

在及物动词后面所接的宾语从句中，连词that一般可以省略；但如果及物动词后面是由that引导的两个或两个以上的并列的宾语从句，那么只有第一个that可以省略。

I think （that）the reform of the renminbi's exchange rate is necessary.

我认为人民币兑换率的改革是必要的。

I know that NBA star Yao Ming will come to our city but I don't know when. （he will come to our city)

我知道NBA明星要到我们城市来但我不知道他什么时候来。

在与suggest，request，order，advise 等词相关的名词性从句中，须用虚拟语气形式“should +动词原形”，should可以省略。

Chirac，President of the Republic of France suggested that the China-France Culture Year （should） last long in various forms.

法国总统希拉克建议中法文化年以各种各样的形式长期持续。

3．动词不定式省略，只保留to 的场合

（1）不定式作某些动词的宾语时，这些动词常见的有：love，like，care，wish，hope，expect，prefer，refuse，mean，try，oblige，advise，persuade，agree，want，afford，forget，remember，try，manage等。

You should have thanked her before you left.

-I meant to，but when I was leaving I couldn't find her anywhere .

你本该在离开前谢谢她，我本打算这么做，但当我就要离开的时候我却找不到她了。

You can do it this way if you like to .如果你想做，你可以这么做。

（2）当两个或多个不定式并列时，其后的不定式符号可以省略，但有对比关系时不可省略。

如：It is easier to say than to do.

4．使用替代词的省略

我们在省略句子某些成分时，有时还必须加上适当的替代词，如do, so, one等，以保持句子意思的完整。常用的替代词有do(does)， so, not, to, neither, nor, so, do that, do it, the same等。

I know you better than he does.

我比他更了解你。（he does等于he knows you）

She became a loyal friend to me and remains so.

她成了我的一个忠诚的朋友，而且一直如此。（so替代a loyal friend）

He said he would make the bed for me but he didn't do so.

他说他帮我整理床铺的，但是他没有这样做。（do so代替make the bed for me）

They played cards after supper and I watched them do that.

他们晚饭后打牌，我在一旁观看。（do that代替play cards）

—Will it rain tomorrow? 明天会下雨吗?

—I hope not. 我希望不会。（= I hope it won't rain tomorrow.）

—Can you come next week? 你下星期能来吗?

—I'm afraid not. 恐怕我不能来。(= I'm afraid that I can not come.)

the same可代替词组或从句。如：

The mother swept the floor and her child did the same.

母亲扫地, 孩子也跟着干。（the same代替swept the floor）

Kate ordered two fried eggs. I ordered the same.

凯特点了两个煎鸡蛋，我也点了同样的菜。（the same代替two fried eggs）

These oranges are just as sour as the last ones we had. They taste the same.

这些桔子和我们上次吃的一样酸。他们味道一样。（the same代替as sour as the last ones we had）

I haven't got any books; can you lend me one?我没有书，你能借我一本吗?

The white dresses go with the hat better than the blue ones.

白色套装比蓝色套装更配这顶帽子。

十四、主谓一致

谓语动词与其主语在人称和数上要保持一致，称为主谓一致。主语和谓语在人称和数上保持一致，遵循三个基本原则：语法一致、意义一致、就近原则。

1．语法一致

语法一致指主语为单数形式，谓语动词也用单数形式；主语为复数形式，则谓语动词也用复数形式，这是主谓一致的三原则中最基本的原则。如：

She is a girl. 她是女孩。

They are all girls. 她们都是女孩。

（1）以单数名词或代词，动词不定式短语做主语时，谓语动词要用单数;主语为复数时，谓语用复数。例如：

He goes to school early every morning.

The children are playing outside.

To work hard is necessary for a student.

（2）由and或both...and连接的并列成分做主语时，谓语动词用复数。例如：

Both he and I are right.

Mr. Black and Mrs. Black have a son called Tom.

但并列主语如果指的是同一人，同一事物或同一概念，谓语动词用单数。

例如：

His teacher and friend is a beautiful girl.

The poet and writer has come.

（3）由and连接的并列单数主语之前如果分别由each, every修饰时，其谓语动词要用单数形式。例如：

In our country every boy and every girl has the right to receive education.

Each man and each woman is asked to help.

（4）主语是单数时，尽管后面跟有 but ,except, besides, with 等介词短语，谓语动词仍用单数。例如：

The teacher with his students is going to visit the museum.

Nobody but two boys was late for class.

Bread and butter is a daily food in the west.

（5）一些只有复数形式的名词，如people, police, cattle, clothes等做主语时，谓语动词要用复数。例如：

A lot of people are dancing outside.

The police are looking for the lost boy.

（6）由each, some, any, no, every 构成的复合代词做主语时，谓语动词都用单数。例如：

Is everybody ready?

Somebody is using the phone.

（7）有两部分构成的物体的名词，如glasses, shoes, pants, chopsticks, scissors等做主语时，谓语动词用复数。例如：

Where are my shoes? I can't find them.

Your pants are dirty.

如果这类名词前用了a pair of等，则谓语动词往往用作单数，谓语动词的单复数形式往往取决于pair的单复数形式。例如：

Here are some new pairs of shoes.

My new pair of socks is on the bed.

2．意义一致

意义一致指主语形式上是单数，但表达复数意义，那么谓语动词要用复数形式；或主语形式上是复数形式但表达单数意义，则谓语动词也采用单数形式。如：

My family were watching TV at 7 o'clock. 7点钟的时候，我们全家在看电视。

The famly were having dinner when I called.我去拜访的时候，那家人正在吃饭。

My family has moved three times. 我们家搬过三次。

（1）表时间、距离、价格、度量衡等的名词做主语时，谓语动词通常用单数。例如：

Twenty years is not a long time. 20年不是一个很长的时间。

Ten dollars is too dear. 十美元太宝贵了。

（2）有些集合名词，如family, team, class等做主语时，如作为一个整体看待，谓语动词用单数；如指其中每个成员，则用复数。例如：

My family is big one. 我的家一个大家庭。

My family are watching TV. 我们全家正在看电视。

（3）由不定代词all, most, more, some, any, none做主语时，也要依这些代词表示的意义来决定谓语动词的单复数形式。如果代词代表复数可数名词，谓语动词用复数；如果代词代表单数可数名词或不可数名词，谓语动词用单数。例如：

All of the work has been finished. 所有的工作都已经完成。

All of the people have gone. 所有人都走了。

（4）疑问代词做主语时，其谓语动词也有两种情况：主语表示复数意义，谓语动词用复数；主语表示单数意义，则谓语动词用单数。例如：

Who is your brother?

Who are league members?

（5）“分数或百分数+of+名词”构成的词组做主语时，其谓语动词要以of后面的名词而定。名词是复数，谓语动词用复数；名词是单数，谓语动词用单数。例如：

It is said that 35 per cent of the doctors are women.

Three fourths of the surface of the earth is sea.

（6）half, the rest等表示不定数量的名词做主语时，如果所指为复数意义，动词用复数；如果所指为单数意义，动词用单数。例如：

I have read a large part of the book, the rest is more difficult.

Only ten students attended the class because all the rest were sick.

（7）由what 引导的主语从句做主语时，通常谓语动词用单数形式。但如果所指内容为复数意义时，谓语动词用复数形式。例如：

What she said is correct. 她所说的是对的。

What she left me are a few old books. 她留给我的是一些旧书。

（8）凡是以“定冠词+形容词（或分词）”做主语，往往根据意义一致的原则决定谓语动词的单复数形式。如果这种主语指的是一类人，谓语动词用复数；如果指的是一个人或抽象概念，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：

The sick have been cured and the lost have been found.

The dead is a famous person. 死的那个人非常有名。

3．就近原则

就近原则指谓语动词的人称和数由最靠近它的主语决定。如：

There is a man, two women and three children in the room.

这个房间里有一个男人，两个妇女和三个孩子。

Either my sisters or my mother is coming. 不是我姐姐们就是我妈妈要来。

（1）由连词or, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also,等连接的并列主语，如果一个是单数，一个是复数，则谓语动词按就近一致原则，与最靠近它的主语一致。例如：

Either you or I am right. 不是你对就是我对。

Neither the children nor the teacher knows anything about it.

（2）在“There be”句型中,谓语动词和靠近的主语一致。

There is one egg and two apples in it. 这有一个鸡蛋和两个苹果。

（3）as well as 和名词连用时,谓语动词和第一个名词相一致。

He as well as I is responsible for it.不但是我，他对这件事也有责任。

（4）以here开头的句子，其谓语动词和靠近的主语一致。

Here is a letter and some books for you. 这封信和这些书是给你的。

十五、被动语态

主动语态表示主语是动作的执行者，被动语态表示主语是动作的承受者。被动语态是动词的一种特殊形式，表示句子中的主语是动作的承受者，也就是动作的对象，被动语态由“助动词be+过去分词”构成，被动语态的时态通过助动词be的变化来体现，它必须与主语的人称和数相一致，其变化规则与连系动词be完全一样。如：

Our teachers are respected by us. 老师受到我们尊敬。

He will be beaten by me. 他将被我打败。

He opened the door. 他打开了这扇门。（主动语态）

The door was opened. 这扇门被打开了。（被动语态）

1．被动语态的构成

现在范畴一般现在时am/is/are + 过去分词现在进行时am／is／are being +过去分词现在完成时has/have been+ 过去分词过去范畴一般过去时was/were +过去分词过去进行时was/were being+ 过去分词过去完成时had been + 过去分词将来范畴一般将来时shall/will be + 过去分词将来完成时shall/will have been+过去分词过去将来时should/would be+过去分词过去将来完成时should/would have been+过去分词(1)一般现在时的被动语态

I am not so easily deceived. 我不会轻易上当受骗的。

Computers are widely used in the world.计算机在世界范围内得到广泛应用。

(2)一般过去时的被动语态

The car was seriously damaged. 汽车受到严重损坏。

Printing was introduced into Europe from China. 印刷术是由中国传入欧洲的。

(3)现在进行时的被动语态

The question is being discussed at the meeting. 这个问题现在正在会上讨论。

The children are being taken care of by their aunt. 孩子们现在正由其姑妈照看。

(4)过去进行时的被动语态

When I called, tea was being served.当我来访时，正值上茶之际。

When they arrived， the experiments were being made. 他们到达时，实验正在进行。

(5)现在完成时的被动语态

The meeting has been put off. 会议已被推迟了。

The party has been planned since the new year. 这次聚会自新年起就已筹划了。

(6)过去完成时的被动语态

By the end of last month,he had been robbed at least three times.到上月底，他已被抢至少三次。

(7)将来完成时的被动语态

It is said that the building will have been completed before September.

据说大楼将于九月前竣工。

This class will have been taught by Mr Brown for two years by next summer.

到明年夏天，布朗先生在这两个班执教已有两年了。

2．被动语态的基本用法

(1)不知道或没有必要说明动作的执行者是谁。例如:

Some new computers were stolen last night. 一些新电脑在昨晚被盗。(不知道电脑是谁偷的)

This bridge was founded in 1981. 这座桥竣工于1981年。

He was wounded many times during the Anti-Japanese War. 他在抗日战争期间多次负伤。

The problem has to be dealt with right now. 这个问题必须马上处理。

(2)强调动作的承受者,而不强调动作的执行者。例如:

The glass was broken by Mike. 玻璃杯是迈克打破的。

This book was written by him. 这本书是他写的。

Your homework must be finished on time. 你们的家庭作业必须及时完成。

Magazines and newspapers in the reading-room mustn't be taken away.

阅览室的杂志和报纸都不能带走。

（3）当说话人需要强调客观时，用被动语态。

It is said that the temperature tomorrow will be 40℃. 据说明天的气温将要达到摄氏40度。

It is hoped that they will be successful. 希望她们会获得成功。

3．被动语态的特殊用法

（1）含有情态动词的被动语态

情态动词的被动语态结构为：主语 + 情态动词 +be +过去分词。如：

Water mustn't be wasted. 绝不能浪费水。

Electric energy can be changed into light enery. 电能可以转变成光能。

Cross the road very carefully. Look both ways, or you might be knocked down.

过马路时要特别小心，要往两边看，不然会被撞倒。

(2)短语动词（“动词＋介词 / 副词”、“动词＋副词＋介词”），如：look after, laugh at, operate on, bring out, give up, put off, do away with, make up for, look down upon 等作谓语，变被动语态时，要把它们看作一个整体，其中的介词或副词不能漏掉。例如：

The baby is looked after carefully. 我们小心地照看着婴儿。

He was operated on at once. 医生立刻给他动了手术。

This matter has been talked about recently. 这件事近来一直被谈论着。

A short play will be put on by them at the party. 一个短剧将要由他们在晚会上演出。

The light has just been turned off. 灯刚被关上。

(3)感官动词（see, watch, notice, hear, feel 等）和使役动词（let, make, have 等）用在主动句中，要求后面接不带 to 的不定式作宾语补足语，但变被动语态时，要加上 to。因为此时原宾语补足语就变成主语补足语了。例如：

The boy was seen to play in the street. 我看见那个男孩在街上玩。

I was made to stand for 45 minutes. 她让我站了 45 分钟。

(4)带双宾语的句子变被动语态时，如果“直宾”作主语，通常要在“间宾”前加 to, 但当谓语动词为 make, mend, buy, pay, get, sing, cook, fetch, spare, find 等时，要在“间宾”前加 for。例如：

A letter is passed to me. 他们递给我一封信。

A gift was bought for her daughter. 那位母亲给她女儿买了一件礼物。

(5)带复合宾语（宾语＋宾语补足语）的句子，即宾语和宾语补足语都是名词或代词充当的句子，变被动语态时，只能将宾语变为被动语态的主语，而宾补保留在谓语后面。例如：

The girl is called Lucy. 他们叫那个女孩露茜。

The table was painted green. 桌子被漆成了绿色

(6)“主+动+that从句”句型的被动句

有些以that从句作宾语的主动句可以转换成两种形式的被动句。如：

People say that he is the richest man in the city.人们说他是全市头号富翁。

It is said that he is the richest man in the city. 据说他是全市头号富翁。

He is said to be the richest man in the city. 据说他是全市头号富翁。

当说话人认为主动句的主语无关紧要，或者不清楚谁是谓语动作的发出者时，便常常使用上述形式的被动句。如：

It was reported that the boy had been found. 据报道，男孩已被找到。

The boy was reported to have been found. 据报道，男孩已被找到。

常用于上述被动句型的动词有：acknowledge, assume, believe, claim, consider, declare, estimate, expect, find, know, presume, report, say, think等。

(7)含有被动意义的主动语态

英语中有一些表示被动意义的主动句，其谓语所表示的不是主语的动作，而是其内在的性能。这种句子的特点是：主语为无生命名词，谓语动词为一般现在时；肯定句必须带方式状语；否定句的谓语可以带情态动词。如：

She is to blame. 她应该受到责备。

The house is to rent. 这个房子要出租。

Food can keep fresh in a fridge. 食物放在冰箱里能保鲜。

The pen writes smoothly. 这支钢笔很好写。

The cloth feels soft. 这布摸上去很柔软。

The cake tastes good. 这蛋糕很好吃。

(8)当 anybody, anything 等不定代词作主动式否定句的宾语时，变被动语态时，应将其变为 nobody, nothing 作被动句的主语，而把被动句的谓语动词变为肯定形式。例如：

He hasn't eaten anything until this morning.

到今天早上为止他什么都没吃。

Nothing has been eaten until this morning.

(9)有些动词和动词短语是没有被动形式的，也不可用其过去分词作后置定语，如：arrive, die, become, disappear, happen, take place, break out, belong to 等。例如：

The American Civil War broke out in 1861. 在 1861 年美国内战爆发了。

The accident which took place last week surprised us. 上星期发生的事件使我们很惊讶。

十六、虚拟语气

英语中的语气有三种：陈述语气、祈使语气和虚拟语气。虚拟语气用来表达说话人的愿望、请求、意图、假想、建议等不能实现的情况或在说话人看来实现的可能性很小的情况。虚拟语气可用于条件状语从句、主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句、同位语从句以及其他结构中。

1．虚拟语气用于条件状语从句中

（1）表示与现在事实相反的假设，条件状语从句中的谓语动词用“过去式（be动词的过去式用were）”，而主句中的谓语动词用“would／should／could／might+ 动词原形”。如：

If I were a boy, I would join the army.

If she had time, she should go with you.

If the weather were fine, I would go there.

如果天气好，我去那儿。（事实天气不好）

If I were you, I would read it again.

如果我是你的话，我再读一遍。（事实上我不是你）

If time permitted, I would write it again.

如果时间允许的话，我再写一遍。（事实上时间不允许）

（2）表示与过去的事实相反，条件状语从句中的谓语动词用过去完成时，主句中的谓语动词则用“would ／ should ／ might ／ could + have +过去分词”。如：

If he had taken my advice, he would have succeeded in the competition.

I shouldn’t have been able to write such good novels if I hadn’t lived among the peasants for five years.

如果我不是和农民生活了五年，就不可能写出这样好的小说。（事实上我和农民生活了五年）

If you hadn’t invited me, I shouldn’t have come to the party.

如果你不邀请我，我就不会来参加你的舞会。(事实上你邀请了我)

If it hadn’t been for your help, I shouldn’t have finished this work on time.

要是没有你们的帮忙，我就不会按时完成了这项工作。（事实上你们帮助了我）

（3）表示与将来事实相反，条件状语从句中的谓语动词用一般过去时或should(were to)+ 动词原形，而主句中的谓语动词则用would / should/could might + 动词原形。如；

If it were to rain tomorrow, the football match would be put off.

If it should rain tomorrow, I would stay at home.

如果明天下雨的话，我将待在家里。（根据天气情况，明天不可能下雨）

If he should come, I could ask him for some advice.

万一他来了，我就能够向他请教。（事实上他来的可能性很小）

If he came tomorrow, I would do it with him.

如果明天他来的话，我将和他一起做此事。（事实上他来的可能性很小）

If it should rain, the crops would be saved. 如果天下雨，庄稼可能就收获了。

（4）当条件状语从句表示的行为和主句表示的行为所发生的时间不一致时，动词的形式要根据它所表示的时间作相应调整。如：

If they had worked hard, they would be very tired.(从句说的是过去，主句指的是现在)

2．含蓄条件句

非真实条件句中的条件从句有时不表现出来，只暗含在上下文中，这种句子叫做含蓄条件句。含蓄条件句大体有三种情况：

（1）条件暗含在短语中。如：

What would I have done without you?

如没有你，我会怎么办呢？(条件暗含在分词短语without you中)

It would be easier to do it this way.

这样做会比较容易。(条件暗含在不定式短语to do it this way中)

This same thing, happening in war time, would lead to a disaster.

同样的事，如发生在战时，就会酿成大祸。(条件暗含在分词短语中)

But for your help we couldn’t have succeeded in the experiment.

如果没有你的帮助，我们的实验是不会成功。(暗含条件是but for your help)

3．虚拟语气用于名词性从句

（1）虚拟语气在宾语从句中的运用

1)“wish + 宾语从句”表示不能实现的愿望，译为“要是……就好了”等。表示现在不能实现的愿望，从句中的谓语动词用一般过去时；表示将来不能实现的愿望，从句中的谓语动词用“would/could + 动词原形”；表示过去不能实现的愿望，从句中的谓语动词用“had + 过去分词”或“could(should)+ have + 过去分词”。如：

I wish it were spring all the year round.

I wish I had known the answer.

I wish I could fly like a bird.

I wish I knew the answer to the question. 我希望知道这个答案。(事实上是不知道)

I wish it were spring in my hometown all the year around.

但愿我的家乡四季如春。(事实上不可能)

I wish I were a bird. 但愿我是只小鸟。(事实上不可能)

When she was at the party,she wished she were at home. (事实上并不在家)

I wish I hadn't wasted so much time. 我后悔不该浪费这么多时间。(事实上已浪费了).

He wishes he hadn't lost the chance.他真希望没有失去机会。(其实已失去)

I wish it would stop raining. 我希望雨能停止。(事实上雨还在下着呢)

He will wish we would join him the following week.(would + join)

(只是希望我们和他在一起，实际上还没在一起)

I wish you would be quiet. 我希望你安静一些。(事实上那家伙还在吵着呢)

2)在表示建议、要求、命令等的动词suggest、advise、propose、demand、require、insist、request、command、order等后的宾语从句中，谓语动词用should+ 动词原形或是动词原形。如：

She suggested we (should)leave here at once.

The doctor ordered she should be operated.

（2）虚拟语气在同位语从句和表语从句中的运用

在表示建议、要求、命令等的名词advise、idea、order、demand、plan、proposal、suggestion、request等的表语从句和同位语从句中，谓语动词用“（should）+ 动词原形”。如：

His suggestion that we (should)go to Shanghai is wonderful.

My idea is that they (should)pay 100 dollars.

The suggestion that the mayor present the prizes was accepted by everyone．

由市长颁发奖金的建议被每个人接受。

（3）虚拟语气在主语从句中的运用

1)“It is (was)+形容词（或过去分词）+that...”结构中的虚拟语气

在“It is (was)+形容词（或过去分词）+that...”结构中，使用某些表示愿望、建议、请求、命令、可能、适当、较好、迫切、紧近、重要等形容词后的主语从句的谓语也用虚拟语气。其表达形式为should ＋动词原形或省略should直接用动词原形（美国英语中省去should）。

常用的形容词：natural (自然的), appropriate (适当的),advisable (合适的), preferable (更可取的), better (更好的)， necessary (必须的), important (重要的), imperative (急需的), urgent (急迫的), essential (本质的), vital (必不可少的)， probable (很可能的), possible (可能的)，desirable (极好的)， advisable（合理的），compulsory（必须的），crucial（紧急的），desirable（理想的），essential（必要的），imperative（迫切的），incredible（惊人的），necessary（必要的），possible（可能的），strange（奇怪的），urgent（紧迫的）。

常用的过去分词required(需要的), demanded(要求),requested(被请求的),desired(要求)，suggested(建议)，recommended(推荐)，orderd(命令)。

It is necessary that we have a walk now. (表示有需要去散步)

It was necessary that we make everything ready ahead of time. (表示有必要事先做好准备)

It is required that nobody (should)smoke here. (表示要求不要在此抽烟)

It is desired that we get everything ready this evening．希望我们今晚一切都准备就绪。

2)在It is ＋名词＋that…的主语从句中的虚拟语气

在It is ＋名词＋that的主语从句中，常用虚拟语气，表示建议、命令、请求、道歉、怀疑、惊奇等。这类名词有：advice, decision, desire, demand, idea，motion, order，pity, preference, proposal，recommendation, requirement，resolution，shame，suggestion，surprise，wish，wonder等。

It is my proposal that he be sent to study further abroad．我建议派他去国外进一步学习。

4．虚拟语气在其他场合的运用

（1）虚拟语气在as if/as though、even if/even though等引导的表语从句或状语从句中，如果从句表示的动作发生在过去，用过去完成时；指现在状况，则用一般过去时；指将来状况，则用过去将来时。如：

He did it as if he were an expert.

Even if she were here, she could not solve the problem.

（2）虚拟语气用于定语从句中

这种从句常用于句型“It is (high)time (that)… ”中，定语从句的谓语动词用一般过去时(be用were)或should + 动词原形，意思是“(现在)该……”。如：

It's time that I picked up my daughter.

It's high time we were going.

（3）虚拟语气用在if only引导的感叹句中。如：

If only I were a bird.

If only I had taken his advice.

（4）虚拟语气在一些简单句中的运用

1)情态动词的过去式用于现在时态时，表示说话人谦虚、客气、有礼貌或语气委婉，常出现在日常会话中。如：

It would be better for you not to stay up too late.

Would you be kind enough to close the door?

2)用于一些习惯表达法中。如：

Would you like a cup of tea?

I would rather not tell you.

（5）虚拟语气用在lest，for fear that及in case引导的目的状语从句中

在由lest等引导的目的状语从句中需用虚拟语气，表示“以防，以免”等意思，其谓语动词多由should ＋动词原形构成，should也可省略。

5．有时侯在使用时可省略if,句子则可换成下列形式，即“were / had / should +主语”。如：

Were I a boy, I would join the army.

Had he taken my advice, he would have succeeded.

Were it not for the expense, I would go to Britain.

Were you in my position, you would do the same. 假如你处在我的地位，你也会这样干的。

Had he been in your position, he'd probably have done the same.

假如他处在你的地位，他可能也会这样干的。

Should they attack us, we'll wipe them out completely.

假如他们进攻我们，我们就把他们彻底消灭干净。

Had I time, I would come. 假如我有时间，我会来的。

十七、各类复合句的用法

复合句是由一个主句和一个或一个以上的从句构成。有主句和从句才具有完整的主谓结构，但主句是全句的主体，从句只是全句中的一部分，不能独立存在。从句通常是用引导词来引导的。

（一）从句的分类

名词性从句主语从句表语从句宾语从句同位语从句形容词性从句定语从句副词性从句状语从句（二）主语从句

1．名词性从句所用的关联词分三类：

（1）连接词：that,whether,if

这类从属连词本身在句中不作任何语法成分，只起连接主句和从句的作用。不充当从句的任何成分。

I know that he is doing his best, but he says that he is a little weak in Chinese.

我知道他正在努力，但是他说他中文稍差。

（2）连接代词：what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whose, which

这类代词除连接主句和从句外，还在从句中充当主语、宾语、定语或表语等语法成分。例如： I don’t know what he is doing now. 我不知道他在做什么。

（3）连接副词：when, where, how, why除连接主句和从句外，它们还可以在从句中作状语。

Where she put it is unknown to us all.

她把它放哪儿了我们都不知道。

I know that he is doing his best, but he says that he is a little weak in Chinese.

我知道他正在努力，但是他说他中文稍差。

2．由连词that引导的主语从句。

That you will win the medal seems unlikely. 你想获得奖牌看起来是不可能的。

That you are so indifferent bothers me. 你如此冷淡使我很烦恼。

That she survived the accident is a miracle. 她在事故中幸免于难简直是奇迹。

3．用连接代词或连接副词if, whether 引导的主语从句。

Which of them escaped from the prison is still a mystery.

他们哪一个是从监狱里逃跑的，仍然是个谜。

When they will come hasn’t been made pubic. 他们什么时候来还不知道。

Whether she is coming or not doesn’t matter too much. 她来不来都无关紧要。

4．用关系代词引导的主语从句。

What you need is more practice. 你所需要的是更多的训练。

What I want to know is this. 我想知道的就是这事。

Whatever we do is to serve the people. 我们无论做什么都是为人民服务。

当what引导的主语从句表示“……的东西”时，一般不用it作形式主语。

What he wants is a book. 他想要的是本书。

5．为了避免句子“头重脚轻”，常常将主语从句放在句末，而在句首使用形式主语it。如：

It is certain that nobody else will come. 肯定没有别人会来了。

It was uncertain whether they would make it. 他们是否会成功，这还不能肯定。

It is being studied what this is made of. 正在研究这是由什么组成的。

（1）It is +名词+从句

类似的名词还有：a pity, a wonder, a good thing, no wonder, surprise, fact等。

例如：It is a mystery to me how it all happened.

这一切是怎么发生的是个谜。

It is common knowledge that the whale is not a fish.

鲸鱼不是鱼，这是常识。

It is no surprise that Bob should have won the game.

鲍勃会赢得这场比赛，这不足为奇。

（2）It is +形容词+从句

类似的形容词还有：necessary, strange, natural， obvious, true; good; wonderful, possible, unlikely, quite, unusual， certain, evident，worth-while, surprising， interesting, astonishing,例如：

It is obvious that conductors and insulators are both important in industry.

很明显导体和绝缘体在工业中都很重要。

It is doubtful whether she will be able to come. 她是否能来令人怀疑。

It was really astonishing that he refused to talk to you. 他拒绝和你说话真是令人惊讶。

It is essential that he should be here by the weekend. 周末之前，他应该到这里是必要的。

It seems obvious that we can not go on like this. 很明显我们不能这样下去了。

（3）It is +过去分词+从句

类似的过去分词还有：known， estimated， expected， believed， thought，hoped， noted， discussed， required， decided， suggested， demanded，made clear， found out, etc. 例如：

It is thought that he is the best player. 大家都认为他是最好的选手。

It is estimated that the vase is 2，000 years old. 据估计这个花瓶有2000年的历史。

It is used to be thought that a new star must be due to a collision between two stars.

过去一直认为新星是由于两颗星星之间碰撞产生的。

It has not been made clear when the new road is to be opened to traffic.

还没弄清楚这条路将开始通车。

（4）It +不及物动词+从句

It seems that … 好像是……

It happened that… 碰巧……

It follows that … 由此可见……

It has turned out that … 结果是……

类似的不及物动词还有：seem, appear, occur, follow, happen, turn out, etc. 例如：

It turned out that nobody remembered the address. 结果是无人记得那个地址。

It now appears that they are in urgent need of help. 看起来他们急需帮助。

It does not matter if I missed my train, because there is another later.

没有赶上这趟火车没有关系，稍晚还有一趟。

It happened that I saw him yesterday. 碰巧我昨天看见他了。

(三)表语从句

表语从句充当主句中的表语，引导表语从句的关联词与引导主语从句的关联词基本一样。例如：

The problem is when it would happen.

问题是这件事何时会发生。（关联词为疑问副词when）

The question is whether we should tell her.

问题是我们是否要告诉她。（关联词为从属连词whether）

That was because we didn't know each other.

那是因为我们互相不认识。（关联词为从属连词because）

That is where we used to live. 那就是我们以前住过的地方。（关联词为连接副词where）

需要注意的，当主语是reason时，表语从句要用that引导而不是because。例如：

The reason why he was late was that he missed the train by one minute this morning .

The reason is that he didn't catch the bus. 理由是他没有赶上公共汽车。

That is why he came late. 那就是他晚的原因。

That is because he didn't catch the bus. 那是因为他没有赶上公共汽车。

（四）宾语从句

名词用作宾语的从句叫宾语从句。引导宾语从句的关联词与引导主语从句和表语从句的关联词大致一样，在句中可以作谓语动词或介词及非谓语动词的宾语。

1. 由连接词that引导的宾语从句

由连接词that引导宾语从句时，that在句中不担任任何成分，在口语或非正式的文体中常被省去，但如从句是并列句时,第二个分句前的that不可省。例如：

He has told me that he will go to Shanghai tomorrow.

他已经告诉我他明天要去上海。

We must never think (that)we are good in everything while others are good in nothing.

我们决不能认为自己什么都好，别人什么都不好。

2. 用who，whom, which, whose, what, when, where, why, how, whoever, whatever, whichever等关联词引导的宾语从句相当于特殊疑问句，应注意句子语序要用陈述语序。例如：

I want to know what he has told you. 我想知道他告诉了你什么。

She always thinks of how she can work well. 她总是在想怎样能把工作做好。

She will give whoever needs help a warm support.

凡需要帮助的人，她都会给予热情的支持。

3. 用whether或if引导的宾语从句，其主语和谓语的顺序也不能颠倒，仍保持陈述句语序。此外，whether与if 在作“是否”的意思讲时在下列情况下一般只能用whether，不用if：

(1)引导主语从句并在句首时；(2)引导表语从句时；(3)引导从句作介词宾语时；(4)从句后有“or not”时；(5)后接动词不定式时。例如：

Whether there is life on the moon is an interesting question. 月球上有没有生命是个有趣的问题。

The question is whether she should have a low opinion of the test?

Everything depends on whether we have enough money. 一切要看我们是否有足够的钱。

I wonder whether he will come or not. 我想知道他来还是不来。

Can you tell me whether to go or to stay? 你能否告诉我是去还是留？

4. 注意宾语从句中的时态呼应，当主句动词是现在时，从句根据自身的句子情况，而使用不同时态。例如：

he studies English every day. （从句用一般现在时）

he studied English last term. （从句用一般过去时）

I know (that)he will study English next year. （从句用一般将来时）

he has studied English since 1998. （从句用现在完成时）

当主句动词是过去时态（could, would除外），从句则要用相应的过去时态，如一般过去时，过去进行时，过去将来时等；当从句表示的是客观真理，科学原理，自然现象，则从句仍用现在时态。例如：

The teacher told us that Tom had left us for America．

5. 由think, believe, imagine, suppose等等动词引导的否定性宾语从句中，要把上述主句中的动词变为否定式，即将从句中的否定形式移到主句中。例如：

We don’t think you are here. 我们认为你不在这。

I don’t believe he will do so. 我相信他不会这样做。

（五）定语从句

在复合句中，修饰某一名词或代词的从句叫作定语从句，被修饰的名词或代词，叫做先行词，从句放在所修饰词（即先行词）之后由关系副词或关系代词引导，例如：

The story that you read is The Rescue. 你读的故事叫《营救》。

She is the girl who got the first prize. 她就是那个得了第一名的女孩。

1．引导定语从句的引导词可分为关系代词 that, which, who（whom）和关系副词where, when。关系代词或关系副词放在先行词和定语从句之间起连接作用，同时又作定语从句的一个成分，代替先行词在从句中充当成分，如何使用关系代词和关系副词是根据先行词及其在从句中所充当的成分确定的。

2．关系代词引导的定语从句

（1）关系代词的概述

关系代词有who, whom, whose, which, that。当先行词指人时用who, whom,当先行词指物时用which, whose是who和which 的所有格形式，表示“……的”，that既可指人，也可指物。这些关系代词在定语从句中作主语和宾语，作主语时关系代词不可省略，作宾语时可以省略，见下表：

先行词指代在句中所作成分人事物人+事物是否可省略作主语who/thatwhich/thatthat不可省略作宾语who/thatwhich/thatthat可省略作定语whosewhose/of which——不可省略（2）当先行词指人时使用who和whom，若在句中作主语用who;如果作宾语用whom, 但在口语中，常用who代替whom, 也可省略，如：

The foreigner who visited our school yesterday is from Canada.

昨天来我们学校参观的那个外国人来自加拿大。(作主语)

The girl we met yesterday is Li Lei's sister.

昨天我们碰到的那个女孩是李雷的妹妹。（作宾语）

（3）当先行词指物时，用which,如：

They planted the trees which don’t need too much water. 他们种植的那些树不要浇太多水。

（4）whose引导的定语从句，先行词可以是人也可是物，whose在从句中作定语，如：

Miss Smith is the teacher whose house caught fire last week.史密斯老师便是上周房子着火的那名教师。

（5）that 先行词即可指人又可指物，在从句中作主语或宾语，如：

A plane is machine that can fly. 飞机是一种会飞的机器。

（6）如果关系代词作介词的宾语时，介词的位置：

1）关系代词whom, which在从句中作介词宾语时，可以和介词一起放在先行词和从句之间。为了使关系代词紧跟它所修饰的词，也可以把介词放在从句中有关动词的后面，如：

The athlete to whom you talked is a famous runner. 你与之谈话的那名运动员是一名著名的跑步运动员。

2）含有介词的动词短语一般不拆开，介词仍放在动词的后面，如：

Is this the watch which he is looking for?

这是他正在寻找的那块表吗？

3）关系代词that在从句中作介词宾语时，介词不能放在它的前面，只能放在从句中的动词的后面，如：

The city that she lives in is very far away.她居住的城市非常远。

4)关系代词whose 也可以在从句中与它所修饰的名词一起作介词宾语，如：

The boss in whose factory I worked is a very kind person.我工作的那个工厂的老板是一个非常和善的人。

（7）只能用that 作关系代词的场合

1）被修饰的先行词为不定代词，如all, much, everything, anything, nothing, none, something等时，只能用that, 如：

Is there anything(that)I can do for you? 有什么我可以为你做的吗？

2）先行词被only, very, just, last, one of, all, no, little, few, any等词修饰时，只能用that, 如：

The only thing that I want to do is to have a rest. 我想做的事就是休息一会儿。

3）先行词是由序数词修饰时，只能用that, 如：

He was the first person that passed the exam. 他是第一位通过考试的人。

4)先行词是最高级或被最高级修饰时，只能用that，如：

This is the best way that can solve the problem. 这是能够解决问题的最好的方法。

5）先行词既有人又有物时，只能用that，如：

The film star and her film that you have just talked about is really well-known.

你刚刚谈到的那个影星和她的影片是非常著名的。

6）被修饰词为数词时，只能用that，如：

He brought two cats yesterday. Now I can see the two that are polaying in garden. 他昨天带来两只猫，现在我能看到他们在花园里玩耍。

7）如果两个从句，其中一个关系代词用which, 另一个则用that 以避免重复。如：

He built up a factory which produced things that had never been seen before.

他建造了工厂要生产一些我们以前从没见过的东西。

8)主句是there be结构，修饰其主语的定语从句用that，如：

There is a book on the desk that belongs to Frank.桌子上的那本书是弗兰克的。

（8）只用which作关系代词的场合

1）当关系代词前有介词时，只用which，如：

This is the house of which the windows face south.这是那间窗户朝南的房子。

2）引导非限定性定语从句which可代表先行词或者前句，译成“这一点，这件事”，如：

Tom came back, which made us happy. 汤姆回来了，这使得我们非常高兴。

I said nothing, which made him very angry. 我什么也没有说，使得他非常生气。

3)先行词为that, those 时，引导词用which，如：

What’s that which was put in the car? 放在小汽车里的那些东西是什么？

4）一个句子中有两个定语从句时，为避免重复，一个用that,一个用which，如：

Let me show you the novel that I borrowed from the library which was newly open to us. 让我给你看看那本我刚刚从新开的图书馆借来的小说。

（9）通常要用who 代表人作关系代词的场合

1）当先行词是one, ones, anyone 或those等，只用who,如：

Anyone who does that must be mad. 谁那样做一定是疯了。

Those who dare to break the law will be punished. 那些竟敢不遵守法律的人将会受到惩罚。

2)用在there be结构中，先行词指人时，只用who, 如：

There is a young man who wants to see you. 有一个年轻人想要见你。

3)当先行词是人，后面有较长修饰语时，只用who,如：

I met a friend of mine in the park yesterday who had got three gold medals in the Asian Games. 昨天我在公园里见到一个朋友，他在亚运会上得了三块金牌。

4)为了避免重复或引起歧义，当句子中有两个定语从句，一个用that,另一个用who, 如：

The man that spoke at the meeting is our new headmaster who has just come from Shanghai. 那个在会上讲话的人是我们的新校长，他来自上海。

3．关系副词引导的定语从句

关系副词有why, when, where, 在定语从句中代替先行词，作状语，不可省略，有时也可用“介词+which”代替。

（1）when 指时间，在定语从句中作时间状语，如：

I still remember the day when I first came to Beijing.

我仍旧记得我第一次来北京的那天。

（2）where指地点，在定语从句中作地点状语，如：

This is the house where we lived last year. 这就是我们去年居住的那个房子。

（3）why指原因，在定语从句中作原因状语，如：

There are several reasons why we can’t do that. 有几个原因使我们不能那样做。

4．使用关系代词还是关系副词

当引导词在句中作主语或宾语时，要用关系代词；当引导词在句中作状语时，要用关系副词，如：

I will remember the day when I left my hometown for ever. （when 作状语=in the place）

这是他工作的地方。

（六）状语从句

在复合句中修饰主句或主句中的某一谓语成分的从句叫状语从句。状语从句通常由从属连词或起连词作用的词组引导。状语从句可放在主句之前或之后，放在主句之前时一般用逗号与主句分开。有时可置于主句中间，前后用逗号。状语从句根据它表达的意思不同，可分为时间、地点、原因、目的、结果、条件、方式、比较、让步等九类。

1．时间状语从句

时间状语从句是表示时间关系的从句。可以引导时间状语从句的连词很多，根据意义和主从句之间的时间关系，通常可分为以下几种情况：

（1）when, while, as, whenever

when, while, as表示主句谓语动作和从句的谓语动作同时发生或几乎同时发生。分述如下：

when

when (at or during the time that)既可以表示在某一点的时候，又可表示在某一段时间内，主句与从句的动作或事情可以同时发生也可以先后发生。表示点时间时，从句中用短暂性动词；表示段时间时，用持续性动词。

When I got home, my family were already having dinner.

我到家的时候，全家已在吃晚饭。（when表示点时间）

The teacher came in when they were still talking and laughing.

当他们还在说笑的时候，老师进来了。（when表示段时间）

while

while意思是“当……的时候”或“在某一段时间里”。while通常表示一段时间，主句中的动作或事情在从句中的动作或事情的进展过程中发生，从句中宜用持续性动词作谓语。在when表示a period of time时，while和when两者可以互换。

She fell asleep while she was reading the newspaper.

她在看报的时候睡着了。（这里的while可换成when）

Strike while the iron is hot.趁热打铁。

(用as或when不可，这里的while意思是“趁着……（的一段时间里）”)

提示：虽然during 与 while 意思很相近，但是during是介词，不能引导从句。

while有时可以作并列连词，表示对比，可译成“……而……”，此时的while只能跟在前一分句之后。

I am fond of English while he likes maths.我喜欢英语而他却喜欢数学。

We slept while the captain kept watching. 我们睡觉而上尉担任警戒。

while有时可引导让步状语从句，意思是“虽然”，等于although，此时的while引导的从句常放在句首。

While they love their children, they are strict with them.

虽然他们都爱他们的孩子，但却对他们要求严格。

as表示“当……的时候”，往往和when/ while通用，但它着重强调主句与从句的动作或事情同时或几乎同时发生。但它还有一些特定的意义：

as表示点时间时，从句中用短暂性动词；表示段时间时，从句中用延续性动词。as和when两者经常可以通用。

The thief was caught as/ when he was stealing in the supermarket.

小偷在超市行窃时被逮住了。（段时间）

I saw Jim as/ when he left the meeting room.吉姆离开会议室时候我看到了他。（点时间）

as表示 “一边……一边……”，强调从句和主句中两个动作交替进行或同步进行。

They talked as they walked.他们边走边聊。

He looked behind from time to time as he went.他一边走，一边不时地往后看。

as表示“随着”。

As time goes on, it's getting warmer and warmer.随着时间的推移，天气变得越来越暖了。

（2）由till或until引导的时间状语从句。till和until一般情况下两者可以互换，但是在强调句型中多用until。并且要注意的是：如果主句中的谓语动词是瞬时动词时，必须用否定形式；如果主句中的谓语动词是延续性动词时，用肯定或否定形式都可以，但表达的意思不同。例如：

I didn't go to bed until（till）my father came back.直到我父亲回来我才上床睡觉。

It was not until the meeting was over that he began to teach me English.

直到散会之后他才开始教我英语。

I worked until he came back.我工作到他回来为止。

I didn't work until he came back.他回来我这才开始工作。

Please wait until I arrived.在我到达之前请等我。

(3)由since引导的时间状语从句。 since引导的从句的谓语动词可以是延续性的动词，又可以是瞬时动词。一般情况下，从句谓语动词用一般过去时，而主句的谓语动词用现在完成时。但在It is ＋时间＋since从句的句型中，主句多用一般现在时。例如：

I have been in Beijing since you left. 自从你离开以来，我一直在北京了。

Where have you been since I last saw you? 自上次我和你见面以后，你到哪里去了？

It is four years since my sister lived in Beijing. 我妹妹不在北京住有四年了。

It is five months since our boss was in Beijing.我们老板离开北京有五个月了。

(4)由as soon as, immediately, directly, instantly, the moment, the instant, the minute, 等引导的时间状语从句。这些连词都表示“一……就”。例如：

I will go there directly I have finished my breakfast. 吃完早饭，我立即到那里去。

The moment I heard the news, I hastened to the spot.我一听到消息，马上赶到了出事地点。

As soon as I reach Canada, I will ring you up. 我一到加拿大，就给你来电话。

【注意】hardly(scarcely, rarely)…when / before, no sooner…than相当于as soon as之意。主句用过去完成时，从句用一般过去时。当hardly, scarcely, rarely和no sooner位于句首时，主句应用倒装语序。例如：

He had no sooner arrived home than he was asked to start on another journey.

他刚到家，就被邀请开始另一旅程。

Hardly had I sat down when he stepped in.我刚坐下，他就进来了。

(5)由by the time引导的时间状语从句。注意时态的变化：在一般情况下，如果从句的谓语动词用一般过去时，主句的谓语动词用过去完成时；如果从句的谓语动词用一般现在时，主句的谓语动词用将来完成时。例如：

By the time you came back, I had finished this book.到你回来时，我已经写完这本书了。

By the time you come here tomorrow, I will have finished this work.

你明天来这儿的时候，我将已经完成此工作了。

(6)由each time, every time和whenever引导的时间状语从句。例如：

Each time he came to Harbin, he would call on me. 他每次来哈尔滨，总是来看我。

Whenever that man says“To tell the truth”, I suspect that he's about to tell a lie.每当那个人说“说实在话”的时候，我猜想他就要说谎了。

You grow younger every time I see you. 每次遇到你，见你更年轻了。

(7)由as long as和so long as引导的时间状语从句。这两个连词表示“有多久……就多久”。例如：

You can go where you like as long as you get back before dark.

你可以随意到哪里去，只要在天黑以前回来就行。

I will fight against these conditions as long as there is a breath in my body!

只要我一息尚存，我就要反对这种境况!

2．地点状语从句

地点状语从句一般由连接副词where, wherever, anywhere/ wherever等引导，例如：

Where there is no rain, farming is difficult or impossible.

在没有雨水的地方，耕作是困难的，或根本不可能的。

They were good persons. Where they went, there they were warmly welcomed.

他们都是好人。因此他们走到哪里都受到热烈欢迎。

You should have put the book where you found it. 你本来应该把书放回原来的地方。

Where the Communist Party of China goes, there the people are liberated.

哪里有了中国共产党，哪里人民得解放。

Wherever the sea is , you will find seamen.有海就有海员。

3．原因状语从句

引导原因状语从句的从属连词主要的有because, as, since, for， seeing(that), now (that), considering (that)，in that等：

The woolly shrank because it was washed badly. 毛衣因洗得不得法而缩水。

I can’t get to sleep because of the noise outside. 由于外面声音嘈杂我睡不着。

Since ／ As we’ve no money, we can’t buy it. 由于我们没钱，我们无法购买它。

Seeing that it’s raining, we’d better stay indoors. 既然外边在下雨，我们最好待在室内。

Now that you are here, you’d better stay. 你既然来了，最好还是留下吧(既来之，则安之)。

I didn’t go because I was afraid. 我没有去是因为怕。/ 我不是因为怕才去。

不过若because之前有just修饰，一般认为not 是否定从句的。

You shouldn’t get angry just because some people speak ill of you.你不要因为有人说你坏话而生气。

4．结果状语从句

(1)结果状语从句由so...that, such...that, so that引导。例如：

He is so poor that he can’t buy a bike for his son. 他太穷了，买不了自行车给他儿子。

She is such a good teacher that everybody likes her. 她是一个好老师，所以人人都喜欢她。

My pencil fell under the desk, so that I couldn’t see it. 我的铅笔掉在桌子下面，我看不见。

(2)so...that与such...that可以互换。例如：

在由so...that引导的结果状语从句中，so是副词，与形容词连用。其结构是:“...so+形容词（副词）+that+从句”。例如：

He was so glad that he couldn’t say a word. 他如此高兴以至于说不出话。

The hall is so big that it can hold 2,000 people.

Mother lives so far away that we hardly ever see her.

在由such…that引导的结果状语从句中，such是形容词，它修饰的可以是单数或复数可数名词，也可以是不可数名词；名词前面可以带形容词，也可不带。如果是单数可数名词，前面需加不定冠词a或an。例如：

It was such a hot day that nobody wanted to do anything. 天气不热了，什么都不想做。

He had such long arms that he could almost touch the ceiling.

He made such rapid progress that he did very well in the mid-term.

(3)如果名词前由many, much, little, few等词修饰时，只能用so, 不用such。例如：

Soon there were so many deer that they ate up all the wild roses.

He has so little time that he can't go to the cinema with you.

5．目的状语从句

(1)目的状语从句通常由so that, in order that引导。例如：

We started early so that we could catch the first train.

He studies hard so that he could work better in the future.

We used the computer in order that we might save time.

(2)so that既可引导目的状语从句，又可引导结果状语从句。区别这两种从句的办法有两个：1)目的状语从句里往往带有情态动词can, could, may, might等。2)从意思上看，目的状语从句往往表示的目的很明确。例如：

Speak clearly so that they may understand you. (目的状语从句)

Jack is badly ill so that he has to rest. (结果状语从句)

6．条件状语从句

引导条件状语从句的连词有：if（如果），unless（除非；如果不），as long as（除非；只要），supposing（假设），on condition that（条件是），in case（如果）。

(1)条件状语从句通常由if, unless引导。例如：

What shall we do if it snows tomorrow?

Don't leave the building unless I tell you to.

If you ask him, he will help you.如果你请他帮忙,他会帮你的。

If you fail in the exam, you will let him down.如果你考试不及格,你会让他失望的。

You will fail to arrive there in time unless you start earlier.

如果你不早点动身,你就不能及时赶到那儿。

Unless it rains, the game will be played.除非下雨,否则比赛将照常进行。

(2)其他连词引导的条件状语从句

I can tell you the truth on condition that you promise to keep a secret.

我可以告诉你真相,条件是你答应保守秘密。

You can go swimming on condition (that)you don't go too far from the river bank.你只有在不远离河岸的条件下才可以下水游泳。

Supposing it rains, shall we continue the sports meeting?

倘若下雨,我们的运动会还要继续举行吗?

Supposing something should go wrong, what would you do then?

假如出了什么问题,你准备怎么对付?

He will sign the contract provided we offer more favorable terms.

如果我们提出更优惠的条件,他就会在合同上签字。

But for the rain, we should have a pleasant journey.要不是下雨,我们的旅行肯定会很愉快。

But for your help,we should not have finished in time.

要不是你帮忙,我们肯定不能及时完成任务。

(3)“祈使句 + and (or)+ 陈述句”在意思上相当于一个带有条件状语从句的复合句。例如：

Hurry up, or you’ll be late.=If you don’t hurry up, you’ll be late.快点，要不然迟到了。

Study hard and you will pass the exam.=If you study hard, you will pass the exam.

7．让步状语从句

让步状语从句表示：虽然，尽管，即使等概念，由although（尽管）, though（尽管）, however（无论怎样）, whatever（无论什么）, whoever（无论谁）, whomever（无论谁）, whichever（无论哪个）, whenever（无论何时）, wherever（无论哪里）, whether（是否）, no matter (who, what, where, when, etc)（无论……）, even if（即使）, even though（即使）等词引导。

(1)让步状语从句通常由although, though等连词引导，although(though)不能用在同一个句子中,这两个连词意思大致相同，在一般情况下可以互换使用。在口语中，though较常使用，although比though正式，二者都可与yet, still或nevertheless连用，但不能与but连用。例如：

Though he is young, he knows a lot.

Although I am tired, I must go on working.

We won’t be discouraged even if(=even though)we fail ten times.

我们就是失败十次也不泄气。

It was an exciting game, though / although no goals were scored.

那是一场精彩的球赛，尽管一个球都没进。(though, although不能与but连用)

Though/Though he was worn out, (still)he kept on working.

虽然他已经精疲力竭了，但仍然继续工作。

Although/Though he is very old, (yet)he is quite strong. 他虽然年纪大了，身体还很健壮。

值得注意的是，although引导的让步状语从句位于主句之前的情况较多，though引导的让步状语从句可位于主句之前或主句之后。例如：

She passed the examination though she had not studied very hard.

她虽然不用功学习，考试却及格了。

(2)no matter what（who，which，when，etc）与whatever（whoever，whichever，whenever，etc）的区别：

当引导让步状语从句时，两者相同，可以互换，但当引导名词性从句（主语从句，宾语从句，表语从句和同位语从句）时则只能用whatever（whoever，whichever，whenever，etc）。如上面最后两个例句可改为：

However pure the water looks, I do not want to drink it。

I want to marry the man I love, no matter who he may be。

No matter what I say or how I say it, he always thinks I'm wrong.

无论我说什么或怎么说，他总认为是我错。

(3)as 引导让步状语从句的用法：

引导让步状语从句时，as意为“虽然，尽管”，通常从句要倒装，倒装的方法是将从句的表语或状语放在as之前，而用though引导让步状语从句时句子则不必倒装（口语中也可倒装）。

Heavily as it was raining outside, they started out very early.

Young as he is, he knows a lot=Though he is young

他虽然年轻，但懂得很多。(though有这种用法，可以替换as,但although没有这种用法)

（4）as, though表示“虽然……但是”，“纵使……”之意。

as引导的让步状语从句必须以部分倒装的形式出现，被倒装的部分可以是表语、状语或动词原形，though间或也用于这样的结构中，但although不可以这样用。例如：

Object as you may, I’ll go.(=Though/Although you may object, I’ll go.)

纵使你反对，我也要去。

Hard as/ though he works, he makes little progress. (=Though he works hard, he makes little progress.

Fast as you read, you can’t finish the book so soon.

纵然你读得快，你也不能这么快读完这本书。

（5）even if, even though 表示“即使……”，“纵使……”之意。

这两个复合连词的意思基本相同。它们常可互换使用，但意义有细微差别。even if引导的让步从句含有强烈的假定性，而even though引导让步状语从句时，是以从句的内容为先决条件的，也就是说，说话人肯定了从句的事实。例如：

We’ll make a trip even if/though the weather is bad.

即使天气不好，我们也要作一次旅行。

Even if he is poor, she loves him. (=He may be poor, yet she loves him.)

即使他很穷，但她还是爱他。

Even though he is poor, she loves him. (=He is poor, yet she loves him.)

尽管他很穷，但她还是爱她。

（6）whether...or...表示“不论是否……”，“不管是……还是……”之意。

由这一个复合连词引导的让步状语从句旨在说明正反两个方面的可能性都不会影响主句的意向或结果。例如：

You’ll have to attend the ceremony whether you’re free or busy.

不管你忙不忙，都要参加这个典礼。

Whether you believe it or not, it’s true.无论你是否相信，这都是真的。

十八、直接引语和间接引语

说话人直接引用别人的原话叫直接引语。说话人用自己的话把别人的意思转述出来叫间接引语。

（一）直接引语与间接引语的转换

1．人称的变化

“一随主”是指在直接引语变间接引语时，如果从句中的主语是第一人称或被第一人称所修饰。从句中的人称要按照主句中主语的人称变化，如：

She said，“My brother wants to go with me.”→She said her brother wanted to go with her.

“二随宾”是指直接引语变间接引语时，若从句中的主语及宾语是第二人称。或被第二人你所修饰。从句中的人称要跟引号外的主句的宾语一致。如果引号外的主句没有宾语。也可以用第一人称，如：

He said to Kate，“How is your sister now?”→He asked Kate how her sister was then。

“第三人称不更新”是指直接引语变间接引语时，如果从句中的主语及宾语是第三人称或被第三人称所修饰，从句中的人称一般不需要变化，如：

Mr Smith said，“Jack is a good worker.”→Mr Smith said Jack was a good worker.

2．时态的变化

直接引语在改为间接引语时，时态需要做相应的调整。

（1）一般现在时变为一般过去时

（2）现在进行时变为过去进行时

（3）一般将来时变为过去将来时

（4）现在完成时变为过去完成时

（5）一般过去时变为过去完成时

（6）过去完成时不变，仍为过去完成时

现在时需改为过去时态；过去时态改为完成时；过去完成时则保留原来的时态。如：

1)She said，“I have lost a pen.”→She said she had lost a pen.

2)She said，“We hope so.”→She said they hoped so.

3)She said，“He will go to see his friend.”→She said he would go to see his friend.

但要注意在以下几种情况下。在直接引语变为间接引语时，时态一般不变化。

【注意】

（1）如果直接引语是表示客观真理时，变为间接引语，一般现在时不改为一般过去时。如：

The teacher said，“The earth goes round the sun.”

→The teacher said that the earth goes round the sun.

（2）如果直接引语中有明确表示过时间的状语，变为间接引语时，一般过去时不改为过去完成时。如：

He said to me, “I was born in 1973.”

→He told me that he was born in 1973.

(3)如果直接引语所述事实在当时和目前同样生效，变为间接引语时，一般现在时不改为一般过去时。如：

He said, “I'm a boy, not a girl.”

→He said that he is a boy ,not a girl.

(4)如果直接引语中的谓语动词表示一种反复出现或习惯动作，在变为间接引语时，一般现在时不改为一般过去时。如：

The girl said, “I get up at six every morning.”

→The girl said that she gets up at six every morning.

(5)如果直接引语中含有since, when, while 引导的表示过去时间的状语从句，在变为间接引语时，只改变主句中的谓语动词，从句的一般过去时则不变。如：

He said to me, “I have taught English since he came here.”

→He told me that he had taught English since he came here.

(6)如果直接引语中含有情态动词 must, need, had better以及情态动词的过去式could, might, should, would,在变为间接引语时，这些情态动词没有时态的改变。例如：

The teacher said to me，“You must pay more attention to your pronunciation.”

→The teacher told me that I must (have to)pay more attention to my pronunciation.

He said, “I could swim when I was only six.”

→He said that he could swim when he was only six.

3．其他变化（即时间状语、地点状语、指示代词）:

直接引语间接引语直接引语间接引语时间状语nowtodaythis week(month...)yesterdaythe day before yesterdayLast week(year...)Three days(a year, years...)agotomorrowThe day after tomorrowNext week(year, month..)thenthat daythat week(month...)the day before指地动thisthatthesethoseheretherecomegotwo　　　days　　　　　agoThe week(year...)beforeThree　　　days(a　　　year,　　　years...)beforeThe next(following)dayTwo days　　　later(in　　　two　　　days　　　time)The next(following)week(year, month...)(这里注意：如果在当地转述，here不必改为there，动词come不必改为go。如果在当天转述，yesterday, tomorrow等时间状语也不必改变。)

4．如何变句型

（1）陈述句，间接引语应改为由that引导的宾语从句。如：

She said, “Our bus will arrive in five minutes.”→She said that their bus would arrive in five minutes.

（2）直接引语如果是反意疑问句，选择疑问句或一般疑问句，间接引语应改为由whether或if引导的宾语从句。如：

He said, “Can you swim, John?”→He asked John if he could swim.

“You have finished the homework, haven’t you?” my mother asked.

→My mother asked me whether I had finished the homework.

“Do you go to school by bus or by bike?”

→He asked me if I went to school by bus or by bike.

（3）直接引语如果是特殊疑问句，间接引语应该改为由疑问代词或疑问副词引导的宾语从句（宾语从句必须用陈述句语序）。

She asked me, “When do they have their dinner?”

→She asked me when they had their dinner.

（4）直接引语如果是祈使句，间接引语应改为“tell(ask, order, beg等)sb(not)to do sth.”句型。如：

“Don’t make any noise,” she said to the children. →She told(ordered)the children not to make any noise.

“Bring me a cup of tea, please,”she said.→She asked him to bring her a cup of tea.

（5）直接引语如果是以“Let’s”开头的祈使句，变为间接引语时，通常用“suggest +动名词（或从句）。”如：

He said, “Let’s go to the film.”→He suggested going to the film.

或He suggested that they should go to see the film.

（6）感叹句

转述感叹句时，可以仍然使用how, what等感叹句引导词，语序不变，也可以用that把它改为宾语从句。

直接引语：We said, “What a clever monkey it is!”

间接引语：We said what a clever monkey it was.

间接引语：We said that it was a clever monkey.

十九、英美文化

1．The Geographical Features of the UK and the USA

（1）The Geographical Features of the UK

The British Isles are a group of islands situated off the continent of Europe. The British state is made up of Great Britain (England, Wales, and Scotland)and Northern Ireland. Its full name is the United Kindom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK).

With an area of about 243,000 sq km, Britain is just about 600 miles from north to south. It is therefore possible to travel to any part of the country within one day.

Briain is an island country, surrounded by the sea. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east.

The English Channel between England and France is quite narrow and the narrowest part is called the Strait of Dover(多佛海峡). The United Kindom is divided politically into four parts and they are:

England

England occupied the Largest, southern part of Great Britain with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north, which takes up nearly 60% of the whole island. The Pennines（奔宁山脉）are the principal mountain chain.

Scotland

Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. There are three natural zones:

1)the Highlands in the north and Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in Britain (1,343 m)is located there;

2)the central Lowlands, the most important area in Scotland which contains most of the industry and population;

3)the southern Uplands.

Though the Gaelic language is still heard in the Highlands and Western Isles, English is spoken all over Scotland.

Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland.

Wales

Wales is in the west of Britain, most of which is mountainous. Cardiff is the capital.

Northern Ireland

Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland.

Rivers play a very important role in the country's economy. The great ports of London, Liverpool and Glasgow are all connected to the sea by rivers. The longest river is the Severn River. The second and most important river is the Thames River, which is very favorable for transportation. Oxford is also on the Thames. River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland. The Lake District in northest England is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Britain, which is the home of the famous lake poet William Wordsworth. The largest lake in Britain is the Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland.

（2）The Geographical Features of the USA

The United States of America is also called the States, the US or Uncle Sam. The continental united states lies in central north America with Canada to its north, Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico to its south, the Atlantic to its east and the Pacific Ocean to its west.

The U.S. has a land of 9.3 million square kilometers. It is the fourth largest country in the world, after Russia, Canada and China.

It is a federal republic with 50 states. (In 1959, Alaska and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th states.)Alaska is the largest in area and Rhode Island the smallest. On the mainland, Texas is the largest state of the country.

The Great Lakes are connected with the Mississippi River system, forming the world's largest inland water transportation route and the biggest body of fresh water in the world.

There are two major mountain ranges in America, one is the Appalachian Mountains (阿巴拉契亚山脉)and the other is the Rocky Mountains (落基山脉).

The Appalachians run slightly from the northeast to southwest and the Rockies run slightly from the northwest to southeast. The Rockies, the backbone of the North American continent, is known as the Continental Divide. It separates the major river system of the United States.

Lying between the Appalachian Mountains and the Rocky Mountains is one of the world's greatest continental rivers-the Mississippi River (密西西比河)，which rises in the lake region in North Minnesota and flows to the Gulf of Mexico(墨西哥湾)and its headstram is Missouri River（密苏里河）. Another major river is the Ohio River(俄亥俄河).

These rivers are important in American life. The Mississippi River has been called “Father of Waters” or “Old Man River”. The Ohio River has been called the American Ruhr after the Ruhr River in Germany. As in Germany, the area along the river is rich in valuable deposits of high-grade coking coal and is well known for its steel industry. On the pacific side there are two great rivers:L Colorado River in the south and the Columbia River, which rises in Canada.

The most important lakes in the United States are the Great Lakes. They are Lake Superior, which is the largest fresh water lake in the world, Lake Michigan (the only one entirely in the US), Lake Huron, Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. They are all located between Canada and the United States except Lake Michigan.

2．The History of the UK and the USA

（1）The History of the UK

The first known settlers of Britain wre the Iberians. The Celts began to arrive about 700 BC and kept coming until the arrival of the Romans. They were ancestors of the highland Scots, the Irish and the Welsh.

Between 1st to 5th century, Britain was under the Roman occupation. Julius Caesar invaded Britain for the first time in 55 BC and in 43 AD the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully. The Romans built a network of towns and roads. The Romans also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain. The Romans remained in control of Britain for nearly 400 years. However, they had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britains.

In the mid-5th century, Jutes, Saxons and Angles invaded Britain. The was called the Anglo-Saxons. Although the Anglo-Saxons are ferocious people, they laid foundations of the English state. They divided the country into shires, which later the Normans called counties. They devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system, which continued until the agricultural revolution in the 18th century. They also established the manorial system, where the lord of the manor collected taxes and organized the local army. And they created the council to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council, which still exists today.

The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. In 1066, William the Conqueror landed in England and built the Norman Empire, thus the feudal system was completely established.

Britain was the contry to industrialize in the late 18th and 19th century. Population became increasingly concentrated in towns. Changes occurred in textiles and other industries. The real revolution in textiles was in 1770 when power driven machinery was introduced. John Kay's flying shuttle speeded up hand weaving. James Watt produced a very efficient steam engine that could be applied to textile and other machinery. As a result of the Industrial Revolution, Britain was by 1830 the “workshop in the world”. Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation's wealth.

One of the most far-reaching consequences of the Second World War was that it hastened the end of Britain's empire. India gained her independence in 1947 and Burma in 1948. Princess Elizabeth was crowned Queen ElizabethⅡ in 1952 in Westminster Abbey. The election 1979 made Margaret Thatcher to power and she became the first woman Prime Minister.

（2）The History of the USA

In 1942, Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator discovered the New Continent.

The first English colony in the New Continent was founded at Jamestown, Virgina in 1607. Between 1607 and 1733 the British established 13 colonies along the east coast of North America among which Georgia was the last. In 1602, 201 pilgrims, to escape religious persecution, sailed to the New World in a ship called Mayflower. They arrived at Plymouth. The neighboring Indians helped them survive by teaching them how to grow corn. Hence, the first Thanksgiving celebration was held to give thanks to God.

In September 1774, the First Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia, which encouraged Americans to refuse to buy British goods. On April 19, 1775, the battles of Lexington and Concord broke out and the War of Independence began. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia and the Congress founded a Continental Army and Navy under the command of George Washington. In 1776, the Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson, which stated that the colonies were “free independent states” and adopted on July 4th, 1776 at a session of the Second Continental Congress. The American troops defeated the British at Saratoga in Northern New York, which was a turning point of the war. In September 1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed, where Britain recognized the independence of the United State. In 1789, the Federal Government was set up and Washington became the 1st American president, while John Adams was elected vice president.

In April 1861, the Civil War broke out and ended in 1865 with the victory of the North. The Union Army under the command of Ulyssess. Grant defeated the Confederate Army at Gettsburg, Pennsylvania, which was the turning point of the Civil War. On November 19, 1863, Abraham Lincoln made the famous Gettsburg address, in which he said,“that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shll not perish from the earth.” In December 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment, which banned slavery, was added to the constitution.

The United States in the 1920s has been described as a period of material success and spiritual frustration or confusion and purposelessness. There was a marked increase in the living standard of many people. However, when the world War Ⅰ was over, there existed a highly aggressive and intolerant nationalism. Many people believed that American political, economic and social institutions were far better than that anywhere else in the world.

On October 24, 1929, the first blow to the stock market came. This was the beginning of a long economic depression, which lasted for 4 years from 1929 to 1933. In 1939, Franklin D. Roosevelt ws elected American president and put forward the New Deal to get America out of the depression.

On the night of June 17, 1972, police at the Watergate apartment-office complex in Washington D.C. arrested five men, who proved to be working for Richard Nixon's committee to reelect the President. In 1973, one of Nixon's aides, Alexander Butterfield, disclosed the Nixon had a taping system installed in the White House and that conversations about Watergate had been recorded. The Watergate investigator ordered Nixon to surrender his tapes, but he refused. On August 5, Nixon finally handed over the complete tapes. Four days later, Nixon resigned, the first president to do so in U. S. History. After Watergate, Americans' disillusion grew.

3．The Political Systems

（1）The Political systems of the UK

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, the head of state is king or queen. In practice, the Sovereign reigns but doesn't rule. The united kingdom is governed, in the name of the sovereign, by his or her Majesty's Government-a body of Ministers. There is no written constitution in UK. It is made up of state law, common law and conventions.

The monarchy is the oldest institution of government. Queen ElizabethⅡ is the current Queen and Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is the symbol of the whole nation.

British Parliament which has a maximum duration of 5 years consists of two chambers, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. To the full sense, the British Parliament consists of the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Today, the House of Commons is the most powerful part of Parliament. The House of Commons is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651 members of Parliament. It is in the House of Commons that the ultimate authority for law-making resides. General elections for the House of Commons are held at least every five years.

There are two major parties in Britain, the Labor Party and the Conservative Party. The leader of the party that wins the most seats is asked to form a government and the leader becomes the Prime Minister and selects his or her cabinet.

Her Majesty's Government is the body of minister responsible for the conduct of national affairs. The Prime Minister presides over the cabinet and about 20 senior ministers compose the Cabinet. Ministers are responsible collectively to Parliamnet for all Cabinet decisions.

（2）The Political systems of the USA

The American Constitution is the oldest written constitution in the world. It was drawn up in 1787 and went into effect in 1789. The Constitution of United States is the basic instrument of American government and the supreme law of the land. The Constitutional Convention opened in May 1789 and met for the last time in September, to sign the final version of the achievement. The Congress, by a two-thirds vote in each house, may initiate an amendment to the Constitution. The Constitution includes seven articles.

1) Article Ⅰ, the Legislative Article

Only Congress has the power to make laws and define its two-chamber system, the Senate (100 members, two from each state)and the House of Representatives.(Membership is based on population).

2) Article Ⅱ, the Executive Article

The article establishes the Electoral College, describes the president's term of office, the qualifications and his duties and powers. The last includes acting as commander in chief of the military; negotiation foreign treaties; nominating government officials, ambassadors and judges; and granting pardons to national offenders.

3) Article Ⅲ, the Judicial Article

The Constitution established the Supreme Court as the highest court in the land. The president appoints the justices of the Supreme Court and the judges of the lower federal courts. According to the Constitution, the federal judges shall hold office “during good behavior”, in practice, until they die, retire or resign. The Supreme Court is the highest court of the United States and is the only organ, which has the power to interpret the Constitution.

The Constitution sets up a strong national government, which has two layers of rule. There is central or federal government for the nation. There are also state and local governments. Each layer of government has separate and distinct powers laid down in the Constitution.

The government is divided into three branches: the legislative, the executive and the judicial. Each has part of the powers but not all the power. And each branch of government can check the actions of the other branches and the three branches are thus balanced. For example, Congress may pass a law, but the president can veto it. Then Congress may pass the law again by a two-thirds vote and the president cannot veto it. But the law may still be cancelled if the Supreme Court decides it goes against the Constitution.

The Congress by a two-thirds vote in each house may initiate an amendment to the Constitution. Or the legislatures of two-thirds of the states may ask Congress to call a national convention to discuss and draft amendments. In either case, amendments must have the approval of three-fourths of the states before they enter into force.

In general, American has a two-party system-Democratic Party and Republican Party. There have been four periods in the history of political parties in America. The first period arose in the late 18th century when the debate over the ratification of the Constitution gave rise to the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. Most of the Anti-entury later accepted the Constitution with The Bill of Rights and began to call themselves Democratic-Republicans with Thomas Jefferson as their leader. After the election of Jefferson as the 3rd president of the U.S. in 1800, the Federalists disintegrated. After the 1828 election of Andrew Jackson, the Democratic-Republican Party split. The main fraction, led by Andrew Jackson, called themselves the Democratic Party, while the other fraction formed the Whig Party in 1834. As the struggle over slavery intensified, the majority of the Whig Party and other elements founded the Republic Party in 1854. Abraham Lincoln, as candidate of the Republican Party, ws elected President in 1860. From 1860 and 1920, the Republican Party dominated. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Democratic Party came to power in 1932 and lasted till the 1980s.

4．Festivals and Public Holidays of UK and the USA

（1）Festivals and public holidays of UK

The Christian festivals are Chrismas, Easter and Whit Sunday.

Christmas Day, December 25th, celebrates the birth of Christ. Two important things help to set the festival: the custom of giving gifts and the habit of family union. At Christmas, the home is decorated. The Christmas tree stands in the corner. On Christmas Eve, the traditional ritual of hanging up a stocking at the foot, the bed is performed by millions of children, who expect Father Christmas (Santa Claus)to come through the chimney.

Easter is the chief Christian holiday, which celebrated the Resurrection of Christ.

Whit Sunday falls on the seventh Sunday after Easter. It is to celebrated the coming of the Holy Spirit to Christ's apostles seven days after his death.

（2）Festivals and public holidays of The USA

Christmas

It is the biggest holiday in the United States. The Christmas season lasts from right after Thanksgiving Day to New Year's Day.

The Christmas is very popular during this time for it can bring good luck.

.New Year's Day

One of the most exciting places in the U. S. On New Year's Eve is Times Square in New York City.

Martin Luther King's Day (the third Monday in January)

King was born on January 15，1929 in Atlanta，Georgia. Having earned a Ph.D. from Boston University，he became a political and religious leader of the non-violent Civil Rights movement in 1955. On August 28，1963，he led Americans on a march in Washington D. C. and delivered his famous speech I Have a Dream. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for peace in 1964 but was murdered 4 years later.

Lincoln's Birthday (February 12)

Lincoln was born Kentucky on February 12，1809. In 1860，he became America's sixteenth President. He led the country through the Civil War but was murdered less than a week after the war ended.

Valentine's Day (February 14)

Easter Sunday (a Sunday between the dates of March 22 and April 25)

Easter Sunday is the second of the two most important religious holiday, for Christians. The egg and the hare which are considered to represent fertility and newlife，are those most frequently associated with Easter.

Independence Day (July 4)

Halloween (October 31)

It is a nighttime children's holiday.

Veterans Day (the second Monday in Novermber)

Thanksgiving Day (the Fourthe Thursday in November)

It is a typical American holiday. It is an annual day of thanks for the blessing that people have enjoyed during the year. The theme has always been peace and plenty，health and happiness. The Americans usually hold big family dinner to celebrated the holiday，which lasts four days. They have such traditional food as turkey, pumpkin pie，apples and so on.

5．Traditons and Cultures

All countries have their social customs and peculiarities. Good manners, politeness and consideration for others are considered important by most people in Britain and America. Americans are informal in their relationships and won't be too upset if you break the social rules, provided your behavior isn't outra-genus. It's better to know some social traditions and customs in the two countries.

（1）Greeting an Introduction

A handshake is the most common form of greeting among the English and British people and is customary when you are introduced to somebody new. It is proper to shake hands with everyone to whom you are introduced, both men and women. An appropriate response to an introduction is “Pleased to meet you”. If you want to introduce yourself to someone, extend your hand for a handshake and say- “Hello, I am...”. Hugging is only for friends. It is only when meet friends, whom you haven't seen for a long time that you would kiss the cheek of the opposite sex. In Britain one kiss is generally enough.

Americans often greet total strangers, particularly in small towns and communities. This may vary from a formal “Good morning” to a more casual“Hi!”，it's considered polite to respond likewise. On parting, it's customary to say “Have a nice day”. Americans often reply “You're welcome”or something similar when somebody thanks them, and they may think you're impolite if you don't do likewise. If someone ask “How are you”, it's usual to reply “Fine, thanks” (even if you feel dreadful).

（2）Time

British people place considerable value, on punctuality. If you agree to meet friends at three o'clock, you should/must make great effort to arrive on time. It is often considered impolite to arrive even a few minutes late. If you are unable to keep an appointment, it is expected that you call the person you are meeting. Here are some general tips for arriving time at specific occasions:

You should arrive at the exact time specified for dinner, lunch; or appointment with professors, doctors, and other professionals. If it is for teas, receptions and cocktail parties, you may arrive at any times during the hours.

You should arrive a few minutes early for public meetings, plays, concerts, movies, porting events classes, church services and weddings.

If you are invited to someone's house for dinner at half past seven, they will expect you to be there on the dot. An invitation might states“7:30 for 8”, in that case, you should arrive 7:50. However, if an invitation says “sharp”，you must arrive in plenty of time.

（3）Invitations

“Drop in any time” and “come and see me soon” are idioms often used in social settings but seldom meant to be taken literally. It is wise to telephone before visiting someone at home. If you receive a written invitation to an event that says “RSVP”，you should respond to let the person who sent the invitaton know whether or not you plan to attend.

Never accept an invitation unless you really plan to go. You may refuse by saying, “Thank you for inviting me, but I will not be able to come.”If, after accepting, you are unable to attend, be sure to tell those expecting you as far in advance as possible that you will not be there. Although it is not necessarily expected that you give a gift to your host, it is considered polite to do so, especially if you have been invited for a meal. Flowers, chocolate or a small gift are all appropriate. A thank-you note or telephone call after the visit is also considered polite and is an appropriate means to express your appreciation for the invitation.

（4）Dining

When you accept a dinner invitation, tell your host if you have any dietary restrictions. He or she will want to plan Britain a meal that you can enjoy. The evening meal is the main meal of the Britain.

Food may be served in one of several ways:“family style”, by passing the serving plates from one to another around the dining table; “buffet style”，with guests serving themselves at the buffet; and “serving style”, with the host filling each plate and passing it to each person. Guests usually wait until everyone at their table has been served before they begin to eat. Food is eaten with a knife and fork and dessert with a spoon and fork.

In America, some families say grace before meals. If you're confused by a multitude of knives,forks and spoons ,don't panic but just copy what your neighbor is doing(the rule is to start at the outside and work in). If he's another ignorant foreigner, you will at least have some company in the social wilderness to which you will both be consigned.

（5）Do stand in line

The British people have the queue habit. They like to form ordely queues(standing in line)and wait patiently for their turn,e. g. boarding a bus or buying something. It is usual to queue when required and expected that you will take your correct turn and not push in front. “Queue jumping”is frowned upon.

Do take your hat off when you go indoors (men only). It is impolite for men to wear hats especially in churches. Nowadays, it is becoming more common to see men wearing hats indoors. However, this is still seen as being impolite，especially to the older generations.

Do say “Excuse me”

If someone is blocking your way and you would like them to move, say“Excuse me” and they will move out of your way.

Do say “Please” and “Thank you” and “Sorry”

It is very good manners to say “Please” and “Thank you”. It is considered rude if you don't. You will notice in England that we say “Thank you” a lot.

If you accidentally bump into someone, say “Sorry”. They probably will too, even if it was your fault!

This is a habit and can be seen as very amusing by an “outsider”.

Do cover your mouth

When yawning or coughing always cover your mouth with your hand.

Do not ask lady her age

It is considered impolite to ask a lady her age.

Do not burp in public

You may feel better by burping loudly after eating or drinking, but other people will note if you cannot stop a burp from bursting out,then cover your mouth with your hand and say “Excuse me” afterwards.

Do not bargain when do shopping

The British do not expect or welcome bargaining. Sometimes they consider it losing face. If it is a question of welcoming expensive artwork or a large quantity of antique furniture or silver, you might try to work out a sensible overall price with your salesman.

（6）Love of Privacy

The right to privacy and personal freedom is unquestioned by the British and the Americans.

There is a common saying among the British people,“My home is my castle. The wind can come in, but the Kings and Queens and human beings can never come in without my permission.”

The same goes with the American people. They love privacy, but not because of the lack of space. They do not like to have a shared bath hall or room because they consider it no privacy, unlike the Chinese people who think it normal to take a bath in a shared bathroom. The American people love to have a small shower room rather than a big shared bathroom. The understanding of privacy between the American people and the Chinese people is not identical at all.

（7）The American Spirit of “Do-it-yourself”

The American spirit of “do-it-yourself” originates from their forefathers who came to settle in this land more than three hundred years ago. They learned to make a living in spite of the hardships all by their own hands. And later, the spirit of a man who works his own efforts and achieves success in business and industry was passed down from generation to generation. Even a rich American family wouldn't like to hire people to do housework and gardening service. The whole society also calls people to do things by themselves, such as gardening, carpentry, upholstering and interior decorating. Night lessons are given to teach Mrs. Americans and Mr. Americans how to deal with their life smoothly. In the USA, everyone takes pride in doing things himself or herself.

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