中国的国家形象和日本人的自我描述

中国的国家形象和日本人的自我描述

China’s Image and a Self-Portrait of the Japanese

Seongbin HWANG

论文摘要：

此文研究目的在于考察日本媒体是如何报道中日关系的,包括媒体框架、挑选的原则、重点,以及表现方式,包括什么存在,什么发生,与什么相关。为了研究,几年来我一直从主流报纸、电视新闻和日常事件中收集新闻素材。我选择了一些重要的新闻事件,如与2008北京奥运相关的新闻事件,火炬接力和四川大地震在此文中进行分析。

我们发现民族主义的倾向性,不仅在网络上,在传统媒体中都普遍存在,只要话题涉及中国和日本的历史,甚至当下与两国相关的议题。由于跨国新闻媒体的发展和无边界的网络社区的扩展,公众的讨论可以轻易地跨越国界,并且人们发现,与别国的人进行交流并没有那么多的障碍了。尽管如此,公众讨论的内容或是人们在讨论中所采取的立场,在国家或民族的外壳的壁垒下,有很强的民族主义倾向。

关键词：国家形象　刻板成见　矛盾的他者　媒体言论　中国的公众舆论　他者　文化民族主义　中日关系

Despite all the efforts to make China’s image better during the Beijing Olympic Games, the keywords of the Japanese TV’s Morning Shows summarizing the Games were“camouflage”and “boost of national pride=Chinese nationalism”.These kinds of Chinese images have been repeated by other news stories which are related to“the anti-Japan demonstration”in 1994,more recently,“Chinese-made frozen dumplings incident”, and the so called“Tibet problem”.Since 1990, the image of China has been something“mysterious and unpleasant”in Japan.

The main question of this article is how Japanese media and the experts determine how“we”see China and its impact on public opinion in Japan.I would like to try to analyze the news materials, focusing on the mechanism of the discursive construction of Japanese national identity and its relevance to Chinese image.

China’s lmage Among Younger Generations in Japan

The following are students’comments in a Japanese classroom after they read and watched the news reports of the great Sichuan earthquake in China.These comments seemed to be the typical attitude towards China among the younger generations in Japan.

Student 1 The Chinese media is controlled(by the government) and the state propaganda seems to continue.

Student 2 Anti-Japanese riots have occurred in China.Nevertheless, in Japan, fund-raising campaigns for rescuing the victims have been taking place.When I saw that sort of campaign, I felt that Japan was a good country.

Student 3 Having heard that school buildings collapsed in China, and knowing that Japanese public schools also have the same problem,Irecognized how important earthquake-proof measures are, even in Japan.

Student 4 The buildings collapsed so easily.I thought that China was still a developing country.

Student 5 Wasn’t the rescue team from Japan refused by the Beijing Government?

Japan-China Relations：Chinese Meat Dumplings, the Tibet Problem and the Gas Field

On May 10,2008,a TV program called Wake up Plus of Yomiuri TV,an Osaka Local TVstation of the Nihon TV Network, summarized President Hu Jin Tao’s visit to Japan.Although the main issues discussed in the program included“Chinese made frozen dumplings”,“the Tibet problem”, and the“East China Sea gas field”, much emphasis was put on the two former issues rather the last, which was actually the top priority during the visit.Below are the sound bites introduced as “voices on the streets”.

Japanese middle-aged male 1 I am not in a good mood(mentioning the torch relay).I wanted to see Japanese flags.There would have been no problem if they came to Nagano and waved not only Chinese flags, but also Japanese flags.

Japanese young man It is a sports event, isn’t it?Since the Olympic Games are sporting events, I do not want them(Chinese)to bring in political issues.

Japanese middle-aged male 2 I do not want to go(to the Beijing Olympics),since the air is dirty.

Chinese young student I am glad, very glad.I am very impressed to see so many Chinese students gathered here in Nagano.

Chinese lecturer Historically, Tibet has been a part of China.So I think it should be proper to clamp down on it in every country, if incendiaries and homicides are carried out.

(mentioning Chinese made frozen dumpling incident)

Japanese middle-aged woman I want to buy bread instead of dumplings.I have not heard whether or not the dumplings are safe to eat again.I would like to be informed soon.

Japanese middle-aged male It is outrageous.Poison is put into food!Ridiculous!

Chinese restaurant employee It seems fake.Ido not believe that Chinese people would do that.How would they make a living if the factory fails?

Chinese student I feel ashamed as a Chinese citizen.I will still buy Chinese products.I will still eat Chinese made frozen dumplings.

Japanese woman Many Japanese go to China.There are a lot of Chinese products here.So it will be better that the two countries become friendly.

Chinese student There are many good occurrences between China and Japan.The relationship between the two countries can only improve.

Japanese woman Japan has been taken for a fool.It should not happen again.

These sound bites were admittedly“voices on the street”and seemed to be arranged in consideration of balance.However,although there were pros and cons,and there was likely to be no intentions on the part of the producer, it was evident that“the Japanese view”and the “Chinese people’s view”were opposed to each other in the news story.Rather than news and knowledge, the program generated the feeling of likes and dislikes,and in doing so a confrontation between the two countries became natural.

The Great Sichuan Earthquake

On May 12, 2008, the Great Sichuan Earthquake measured 8.0 on the Richter scale and killed almost 70,000 people, leaving 4.8 million homeless.It was the worst disaster in China since the 1976 Tangshan earthquake, which killed 240,000.

Case 1 Sunday Scramble(TV Asahi, Sunday 11：55- 12：55 pm)

This program focused its attention on the Japan-China relation ship and the Japanese Rescue Team.The following is an extract from conversations in the studio after a news clip.Participants are：Masahiro Sasaki, Anchorman；Tomoko Nagano, Anchorwoman；Zhu Jian Rong(朱建栄), professor at Toyo Gakuen University,Japan, who is an expert on Chinese politics and its foreign affairs；Terry Ito, TV producer and commentator；Hiroshi Kurogane, manga artist and TV commentator.

Sasaki：This time, in the beginning, the Chinese government rejected the proposal(by Japanese government),is that right?

Zhu Jian Rong：This incident set a precedent.Until now, nothing like this had taken place in China.I got an E-mail from a government officer who is a friend of mine in which he consulted with me about what kind of situation the Chinese government could allow international rescue teams in, and what kind of institution or organization should be established.They are responding while studying, because there hasn’t been such a case before.

Nagano：In such confusion, some people are complaining about the shoddy constructions.

Ito：Apart from the construction issue, those buildings were built around 40 years ago.They worked assiduously to catch up with and overtake the West.In the case of the earthquake disaster of Kobe,Japan did not accept a foreign rescue team.

(skipped.)

Particularly worth mentioning is the absence of a common understanding in this conversation.No question from either of the two anchors could get an anticipated answer, and they could not reach a common understanding.It didn’t even sound as if they had presented the“news”.

The questions have the following three points：The first is about the Chinese authority’s rejection to the assistance offer from the Japanese government.Second is the Chinese people’s protest to the government and third concerns the Chinese government’s propagandistic control of the media.It could be assumed that these questions were based on the common understanding about China.Interestingly enough,all the answers from the guests were not what was anticipated.For the first question about the Chinese government’s refusal to the assistance offer by foreign countries at the initial stage, a Chinese professor’s answer was that it was the first case since the foundation of the nation, and the magnitude of the earthquake was unparalleled in history.Another commentator, Mr.Ito also said that the Chinese government’s reaction was understandable, considering the experience of the Great Hanshin Earthquake in Japan.He also added that it was difficult to accept a rescue team from overseas unconditionally and immediately.The two anchors, however, did not react to these comments.Instead they changed the topic.If it were an everyday conversation, this kind of response would have been considered rude, especially in Japan, a highly polite society.

At least in the studio, the questions from the anchors are usually based on a common understanding about what is at stake and then the commentators reply to those questions.However,in this kind of news show in Japan, it would be a rather rare case if the program reached a conclusion.

Case 2 NEWS PREMlUM(Fuji Television, Sunday 10：00-11：00 pm)

On May 18, 2008,about ten Chinese students were invited to the studio in Fuji TV Station.At first, two guests asked their questions to the Chinese students as below.

Figure 1　In Japan, the government supervises school buildings—We, in Japan, are holding emergency drills.What about in China?

As shown in Figure 1, the dichotomy between“We Japanese”and“Chinese people”is constructed spatially in the studio.The following is an extract from the exchange between the main anchorwoman Yuko Ando and the Chinese students.

Ando：Prime Minister Wen Jiabao entered immediately after the earthquake there, and headed as a leader.What do you think of such a response by the Chinese government?

Chinese student A：I think that it was a proper action.When compared with the Japanese government, I thought there was no difference.

Ando：Un Un.Uhm.Concerning the information from the Chinese government, I think that the exact information about the damage of the earthquake isn’t available.

Chinese student A：Oh, do you think so?I think that it has been getting better compared to before.

Ando：Really?I am going to ask you further questions later.

Takigawa Christel：From now on, we would like to ask Mr.Koizumi some questions.He continues eager rescue operations as the leader of the rescue team of Japan.

It is evident that Ms.Ando’s questions shared an assumption in the news room.Those questions are focused on the“intention”of the Prime Minister and“media control”by the government just like case 3.In every question, however, an anticipated answer could not be obtained, and it is not easy to say what kind of understanding could be shared after the conversation, not only in the studio, but also in living rooms of people at home.

After the commercial, Mr.Koizumi was on the telephone.

Ando：What was your first impression after you went into the devastated areas?

Koizumi：The scale of the disaster was larger than expected.

Ando：Uhm.According to some information,it seems that the Japanese rescue team cannot use their strongest abilities during this crisis.

Koizumi：Well.Ithink that it is true in part.At the first stage we went to a place by order of the Chinese authority.Once there we could not operate adequately.Communication also becomes better and better.

Ando：Indeed.Isee.I think that you are doing a hard job really.I hope that the team can save as many lives as possible.

Then, Ms.Ando poses questions to the Chinese students in the studio.This time, Yoshiko Sakurai, a Japanese female journalist and TV commentator presenter, joins in the exchange.

Ando：I would like to ask you Chinese some questions, regarding Japan’s aid.There seems to be some opinions like“I changed my mind about Japan”, and“Thanks to Japan”, from the Chinese side, and on the Internet.What do you think about these changes in terms of the sentiment for Japan from the Chinese side?What is your opinion about that?

Chinese student：I would like to thank you too, really.You have the heart-felt thanks of all the Chinese people, we are extremely grateful.Now that the Japanese team’s rescue operations were carried out without accident,Ithink that relations between Japan and China are going to get better in the wake of this.Not only because of this incident, but also in many other aspects.For example, I hope youth exchange activities get better.

Ando：With this, Uhm, please raise your hand if you think that Chinese people’s sentiments to Japan will change.Change!Well!(with a smile).It is understandable.Sakurai san!Don’t you think that it might have been better if the Chinese authorities accepted the Japanese rescue team earlier?

Sakurai：Indeed.The request came 72 hours after the incident took place.Despite this,Iam happy to see you guys raising your hands and expressing your anticipation about Japan-China relations in a positive direction.Various issues including political obstacles exist between Japan and China as you may already know.During the SARS crisis Japan was one of the first groups of countries to help China.After that, Chinese said“thank you Japan”, but then the anti-Japanese riot occurred.—We know each other well and should expect this to happen again.Also in China, I think that some want to change in a really rational and positive direction.However, others don’t want to change,as in many other countries.The gap between the two groups is especially large in China.We know the situations well in each country.I think that you should take the lead and make stronger efforts towards positive relations.

It is understandable that the program places many hopes on the rescue team’s operation.However,it is evident that more emphasis was placed on the favorable swing of the Chinese people’s sentiment for Japan rather than saving the lives.Furthermore, there is an implicit assumption that the cause of the problems between the two countries might be in the Chinese side.This idea needs to change before the relationship can improve.This kind of scheme was identical to the edited visual image.As Ms.Sakurai talked about the trouble between Japan and China, the video of Premier Wen Jiabao in the disaster sites was inserted as if indicating that the Chinese government was the obstacle to resolving the problem.

Figure 2

The Japanese Rescue Team

One morning after the quake,a Fuji TV’s reporter in a morning show called Tokudane was saying, “the members of the Japanese rescue team are feeling frustrated without yielding any results.”Surely, it would be a big accomplishment if the rescue team could save a life.

On June 1, NHK’s evening news program News Watch 9 featured the activities of a Japanese medical team which just finished their duty.It pointed out that the Japanese medical team could not go into the area where full-scale relief was needed, but had taken on the duty in a university hospital.In contrast,the medical team from Germany was introduced,as it was developing largescale medical facilities in the stricken area.

Reporter：Germany’s equipment far exceeded the anticipations of the Nippon(Japan)team.There are internal medicine doctors, surgery, obstetrics, gynecology, and pediatrics.It has 120 beds and an operating room and a delivery room.China’s request has been completely understood and fullfilled.The team number is 11, below half of Nippon.Only two are German doctors and the actual medical treatments have been done by the Chinese staff.

German doctor：There are high level doctors and nurses.

Figure 3

Figure 4

Interestingly enough, however, the anchorwoman said in response,“there are big difference between Japan and Germany.”She did not go on further about what the differences are.There was no mention about the fact that someone was making humanity rescue carry the Rising-Sun national flag on the back or the measures led by government.Thus, the flexible cooperative relation with the Chinese authorities became difficult.Also another problem may be the Japanese rescue team’s“style”,and that all the equipments and staffs were arranged only in Japan,as if the quake area was a jungle or an uncivilized world.This report was an example how the Japanese side responded to the Chinese request.

SDF Aircraft Story：A Rashoumon Story

The Chinese government had asked Japan to help them carry emergency supplies to the victims of the magnitude-7.9 earthquake that struck the Sichuan Province on May 12.Chief Cabinet Secretary Machimura ordered Foreign Ministry and Defense Ministry to study the matter in a positive manner, including the dispatch of a Self-Defense-Forces aircraft.(May 28, lead sentence of the NHK news)

Oddly enough, as for news about the overseas dispatch of the SDF, neither the reaction of the opposition party, nor the voices from the streets were reported.The dispatch of an SDFaircraft to China was assumed to be a desirable thing so that it does not need to be questioned.

It was treated as top priority at Houdou station, TV Asahi’s evening news.The main anchorman Furutachi said that the damage by the quake was unparallel in history, and emphasized that the shortage of tents was especially serious.Then he said the following.

It would be the first time ever.Because dishonest acts, such as the sale of tents through illegal channels, had occurred frequently, it was decided that the Self-Defense-Forces aircraft of Nippon(Japan)should fly to China for the first time, and carry tents.Around next week at the earliest,it will carry tents to Beijing and Chengdu.

On the two monitors behind the anchorman, the pictures of the disaster victims and the SDF aircraft were projected respectively as if the Self-Defense Forces went there to rescue the devastated people.(See Figure 5 and Figure 6)

Figure 5

There was no explanation about“the dishonest acts”during the disaster.However, there were other references about China in other news items.After a news report about the Myanmar disaster, Mr.Furutachi said that China and Russia are asked to pressure the Myanmar government thoroughly to improve the situation since the two countries both back the military government of Myanmar.Furthermore, in the news of the Conference on African Development held in Yokohama, he questioned in a manner closely resembling colonialism.

Figure 6

How has Beijing been supporting African countries to secure natural resources?Isn’t Japan lagging behind?

China is regarded as the backer of the military regime of bordering countries, and as a hegemonic country eager for resource acquisition in Africa.At the same time, the story of the tent shortage was being aired.

In the first place, the Chief Cabinet Secretary Machimura said,“yesterday, a request came to our country’s embassy in Beijing.They want to carry tents and blankets by SDFto the airports in China”.He directly mentioned that Beijing had unofficially hinted to Japan on“the idea of using the SDF.”

However, in a subsequent coverage, nuance differs a little.

Journalist：Why an SDF aircraft?

Foreign Minister Komura：(China) is not asking(Japan) to transport(specifically) with SDFairplanes, but is saying SDF planes would be fine, too.That’s what I know.

That is, it is relief goods that the Chinese government asked from Japan, and it is the Japanese government that wanted the SDF aircraft to be a means of carrying the relief goods.Nevertheless, in a series of reports, the dispatch of an SDF aircraft had been emphasized, and it became“fait accompli”.The domestic reaction following was not reported, at least, in the network TV news.

We cannot agree.Chinese people’s sentiment should be taken into consideration.The Self-Defense Forces are not a disaster relief team.Thoughtful consideration is required.(Fukushima, Chief of Social Democratic Party, May 28, 2008, Kyodo News).

On the following day,Japanese major newspapers also awarded top news value to this event as follows：“a historical turning point”(The Mainich),“Changed!Japan Surprised”(The Asahi), “Japan expect confidence building”(The Nikkei), any“Steppingstone for genuine partnership”(The Yomiuri).In addition, headlines like“motive”, and“speculation”were often used for the Chinese side.Furthermore, it was emphasized that this“change”should mean policy switches in Beijing, in terms of improving ties with Japan.In so doing, the Chinese government was represented as a tough and calculating negotiator, and the counterpart, the Japanese themselves, were represented as people of good will as well as soft and passive.

However, things turned around on the next day.Acknowledging apprehension in China, the Japanese government announced that they decided to drop the plan.Next morning,it was reported with the headlines of“SDFaircraft dispatch plan dropped,in consideration of the backlashes in China”(The Asahi),“SDFaircraft dispatch plan dropped by reluctance of China”(The Yomiuri).What is valued in here is not transportation of urgent supplies, but whether or not a Japanese military aircraft can go to China, and the reason the plan was put off is that we,Japan, took into consideration the fact that some people in China were growing cautions about(sending)an SDFaircraft.

Sichuan and adjacent Chongqing are the regions where the Imperial Japanese Army bombed during the Sino-Japanese War and many victims were sacrificed.Anti-Japan sentiment is especially strong in China.(Sunday morning, TBS,June-1, 2008)

The decision of not sending the SDF aircraft by the Japanese government was told as being objected by China.Once again,China was represented as anti-Japan,and Japan was positioned on the“to consider”side.Also because Japan could not dispatch a Self-Defense-Forces aircraft, deep-rooted resistance of the military authorities and anti-Japanese sentiments were assumed.Therefore, the image of“stubborn”China which does not accept the goodwill of“us”here is to be strengthened and the Japanese identity as pure and bona fide is reinforced.

From the very first, the problem was in the expectations of the Japanese government, which tried to render“a historical meaning”to humanitarian relief activities, and also in the media’s agenda setting which put high priority in terms of news value.Why is it“historical”that a Japanese Self-Defense-Forces airplane goes to China?

Although there were explanations that the places were where the Imperial Japanese Army carried out air strikes and many victims were sacrificed, memories of the victims were defined and considered as“Anti-Japanese sentiments”without taking everything into thoughtful consideration.Isn’t that memory reinforced, when the Self-Defense Force airplane flew into the Chinese sky?Was it sad when this rescue stay was a reminder of a memory of the past?The media was much too innocent, and they forgot the problem of a possible painful memory from past history.

After a few days, a Japanese destroyer docked at a heavily guarded naval base in Guangdong Province on June 24 for a five-day port call,the first by a warship from Japan in China since World War II.The visit by the 4,650-ton destroyer Sazanami, officially an earthquake relief mission,is seen by many military and diplomatic analysts as part of a broad and gradual reconciliation between the countries, which has quickened since President Hu Jintao of China visited Japan in May(The New York Times,June 25, 2008).

However, there was no headline that appeared on the SDFairplane story.No caption or title such as“historical”was on the evening news programs.This reciprocal military exchange did not gather the media’s interest and could not gain higher news value.

News is sometimes“language or text”rather than“occurrence”.The media position utterances in a certain context, and have them make sense and define reality as we have seen in the SDF airplane story.In that sense, the operation of journalism is rather an act of interpretation more than transmission.As Said pointed out, the actuality is that journalists, news agencies, and networks consciously go about deciding what is to be portrayed,how it is to be portrayed,and the like.Aims of the press such as objectivity, factuality, realistic coverage, and accuracy are highly relative terms；they express intentions, perhaps, and not realizable goals.New, in other words, is less inert than the result of a complex process of usually deliberate selection and expression (Said, 1997, p.50).

Concluding Remarks

Around 1990, when I came to Japan as an exchange student from Yonsei University, Korea, Japanese society’s gaze towards China was still a warm one, supporting Beijing’s shift to reform and opening-up.However,a conversion of the image of China has occurred since the mid-1990s.

One of the symbolic incidents was the disturbance involving the issue of Taiwan’s president Lee Tenghui’s visit to Hiroshima.In the background had been Taiwan’s ongoing efforts to gain international political status and recognition commensurate with its economic strength,Even though the Olympic Council of Asia had published a letter of invitation to Mr.Lee.Although it was a mistake that resulted from a lack of appreciation of the diplomatic sensitivities,Japanese authority had stood their ground, insisting the visit had nothing to do with diplomacy or politics.Japanese officials also argued that the visit did not technically violate the letter or even the spirit of the 1972 agreement under which Japan and China first established diplomatic relations.The Olympic council eventually withdrew the invitation.No sooner had the Chinese halted their argument over the affair than the new issue of Mr.Hsu’s visit came up.In fact, the threats grew more tangible, with some Chinese calling off visits to Japan.The moves caught not only the Japanese Foreign Ministry’s attention but also the Japanese media and the public by surprise.In this case,Japanese major media strengthened the criticism of Chinese hegemonism.

Then, the Chinese Image as“anti-Japan”was reinforced further when Jiang Zemin visited Japan and emphasized the issue of history and the need to solve the countries’differences over wartime history.The Beijing image of interfering in a Japanese“domestic”matter using“historical issues as a diplomatic card”became decisive when Prime Minister Koizumi visited the Yasukuni Shrine, which is a Shinto shrine for the war heroes, and also a critical symbol of pre-war nationalism in Japan.

In fact, such diffusion of a negative China image is closely connected with the movement of nationalism in Japan.Fierce bashing saying“Don’t involve politics in sports”is the typical example.The image of hegemonic China is the mirror image of the Japanese nationalist’s desire that identifies “us”as innocent, pure and nonpolitical.As Stuart Hall indicated, identity is always a structured representation which only achieves its positive through the narrow eye of the negative(Hall, 1997a, 1997b).The self-portrait of“us”who dislike the political China is just another selfportrait of“the premature patriots”who are strongly conscious of politics.Frenzy of the sport in China is regarded as the nationalism of initiative by politicians, and frenzy of Japan is regarded as “healthy nationalism.”Therefore, it becomes the soil with which the catchphrase of“beautiful Japan”(by Abe,Sinzo, former prime minister)and“extraordinary Japan”(by Aso, Taro, current prime minister)has been accepted.

Bibliography

Anderson,B.(1991).Imagined Communities：Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism.London and New York：Verso.

Gamson, W.A., Croteau, D., Hoynes, W.,and Sasson,T.(1992).“Media Images and the Social Construction of Reality.”Annual Review of Sociology, 18, 373-393.

Hall,S.(1997a).The Spectacle of the“Other.”In S.Hall(Ed.),Representation(pp.223-290).London：Sage.

Hall,S.(1997b).The Local and the Global：Globalization and Ethnicity, King, Anthony D.(Ed.), Culture, Globalization and the World-System, The University of Minnesota Press.

Fairclough, Norman(1995).Media Discourse.Edward Arnold

Fairclough, Norman(2003).Analysing Discourse：Textual Analysis for Social Research.Routledge.

Said, E.W.(1997).Covering Islam：How the Media and the Experts Determine How We see the Rest of the World.New York：Vintage Books.

Tuchman, G.(1978).Making News：Astudy in the Construction of Reality.New York：Free Press.

〔Seongbin HWANG,Associate Professor,Faculty of Sociology,Rikkyo University,Japan〕