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词汇衔接方式

时间:2022-04-03 理论教育 版权反馈
【摘要】:三、词汇衔接方式英语的词汇衔接关系由Halliday分为两大类:复现关系和同现关系。本章拟将词汇的衔接方式从重复、泛指词、同义词、反义词、上下义关系和搭配六大类进行分析。1.重复具有同样语义同一形式的词汇在同一语篇中反复出现,叫做词汇重复。2.泛指词在语篇中遇到其他位置出现过的人、物、事情或地点时,可用一些泛指上述概念的词语替代,即“泛指词”,以避免给人以词汇贫乏、苍白无力之感。

三、词汇衔接方式

英语的词汇衔接关系由Halliday分为两大类:复现关系(reiteration)和同现关系(collocation)(Halliday&Hasan,2001:275-292)。词汇的复现关系指的是通过某一词以原词、同义词、近义词、上义词、下义词、概括词或其他形式重复出现在语篇中,语篇中的句子通过这种复现关系达到了相互衔接。而同现关系指的是词汇共同出现的倾向性。词汇的同现关系包括反义关系、互补关系等(黄国文,1988:122-126)。

而胡壮麟先生在《语篇的衔接与连贯》(1984:115)一书中将其分为重复、泛指词、相似性、可分类性和搭配五大类。

本章拟将词汇的衔接方式从重复、泛指词、同义词、反义词、上下义关系和搭配六大类进行分析。

1.重复

具有同样语义同一形式的词汇在同一语篇中反复出现,叫做词汇重复。现用词汇重复理论分析如下文字:

[1]Across the window pane it pours and pours.

(H.W.Longfellow:Rain in Summer)

[2]It snowed.For hours it had been snowing…

(Morley Callaghan:Winter)

上述两例中词汇项重复时词类及词形不变,仅根据语法要求作稍许调整。这种方法可用于组织篇章,使语义贯通,上下衔接。

[3]The world doesn’t fear a new idea.It can pigeon-hole any new idea.But it can’t pigeon-hole a real new experience.It can only dodge.The world is a great dodger,and the Americans the greatest.Because they dodge their own very selves.

(D.H.Lawrence:The Spirit of the Place)

例[3]中动词pigeon-hole两次出现,动词dodge三次出现,其中dodger词性变为名词,这两个表达重要意义的动词的重现,使这一篇章片断衔接紧密,使篇章流畅和稳定。同时,这两个动词的一再重复貌似平淡单调,缺乏文采,实则含蓄隽永,平淡中见新奇,具有深刻的寓意,展现了作者对美国人的暗中讽刺。他们不乐于接受与尝试新的观点,逃避经验,逃避现实,甚至逃避自我。

[4]Swiftly,swiftly flew the ship,

Yet she sai’d softly too.

Sweetly,sweetly blew the breeze,

On me alone it blew.

(S.T.Coleridge:The Ancient Mariner)

该首诗歌中swiftly和softly的重复出现,勾勒了一幅美妙的景色:微风拂面、小舟划行在海上,既迅捷又悠然自得。这两个词汇的重复使用成功地增强了诗歌的意境。

[5]Lear:And my poor fool is hang’d.No,no,no life! Why should a dog,a horse,a rat have life,and thou no breath at all?Thou’ll come no more.Never,never,never,never,never!

(William Shakespeare:King Lear)

[6]Would you please please please please please please please stop talking?

(E.Hemingway:Hills Like White Elephants)

否定词never的一再重复表现了李尔王失去唯一的孝顺的小女儿时悲痛绝望的心情。而please七次重复使用,语气不断加强,表现了讲话者异常恳求的态度。

[7]There was a large mushroom growing near her,about the same height as herself;and,when she had looked under it,it occurred to her that she might as well look and see what was on the top of it.

She stretched herself up on tiptoe,and peeped over the edge of the mushroom,…

(Halliday &Hasan:278)

前文提到过mushroom,后文提到时仍用mushroom,上下文指称清晰,达到了这两个语段之间语义的连贯。

2.泛指词

在语篇中遇到其他位置出现过的人、物、事情或地点时,可用一些泛指上述概念的词语替代,即“泛指词”,以避免给人以词汇贫乏、苍白无力之感。英语中的泛指词有person,thing,place,fact等,例如:

[8]University of California’s former President David Gardner has approved a $100 million extension of a program that offers 1000 interest mortgages for faculty members and executives,a decision that comes in the face of possible student fee increases and staffs pay cuts.

The action was disclosed in the Oakland Tribune on Wednesday.

(Los Angeles Times 92.7.4)

上例中第一段的前半句话在语篇的另一位置以“The action”的形式出现,避免了重复,符合了交际的经济原则,使得语言简练。

[9]I turned to the ascent of the peak.The thing is perfectly easy.

(Halliday &Hasan:279)

例[9]的第二句用the thing代替the ascent of the peak,同样达到了通顺、简洁的目的。如果把后者又重复一遍,则完全不符合交际的经济原则,冗长累赘。

3.同义词

同义词包括两方面,既指“同义性”(synonymity),又指近同义性(near-synonymity)。同义性与近同义性指具有同样意义或相近意义的不同词项之间的接应关系,人、物、过程、性质都可。在文学作品中,词语常以同义词形式出现,可以避免语篇单调呆板,可以更精确地表意,更细腻地传情,更形象地绘物,产生积极的修辞效果与独特的文体效应。同义词组可以组织语段、构建语篇及加强段落的表达力。例如:

[10]He saw the specks of Gulf clouds flame high in the air.And a goat came near and sniffed at him and stared with its cold yellow eyes.Behind him Juana’s fire leaped into flame and threw spears of light through the chinks of the brushhouse wall and threw a wavering square of light out the door.A late moth blustered in to find the fire.

(J.Steinbeck:The Pearl)

[11]We observe today not a victory of a party but a celebration of freedom,symbolizing an end as well as a beginning,signifying renewal as well as change.

(John F.Kennedy:Inaugural Address,1961)

例[10]中flame与fire的同义复现,例[11]中近义词victory与celebration,symbolizing与signifying,renewal与change反复出现,它们在语篇中的运用避免了用词重复,使语言生动富于变化,更强烈的表达了说话人的情感倾向,调整了语言的节奏,加强了作者的语气,使语篇的语义豁显。

[12]Someone who is infantile behaves in a foolish and childish way.

(Collins Cobuild Essential English Dictionary:p403)

[13]Everyday as one word is an adjective meaning “commonplace”,“normal”.

(张道真:《现代英语语法词典》第2644页)

[14]“Then you are going to be married,sir?”

“Exact-ly——Pre-cise-ly:with your usual acuteness,you have hit the nail straight on the head.”

(Charlotte Bronte:Jane Eyre)

两个或两个以上的同义词在同一个小句(clause)内出现,其功能有可能是以一个词解释另一个词的含义,如上例[12]中的infantile和foolish及childish,[13]中的everyday和commonplace 及normal;也有可能是加强说话的语气,如上例[14]中的exactly 和precisely。无论哪种情况,同义词都能起到两个不同成分从意义上联系起来的作用。

在这里我们注意到英汉语同义词使用上的一个差别:相对于英语而言,在一般语篇中汉语的同义词并列现象比较多,它们译成英语后往往只用一个词便可以表达意义,如

(中华民族雪洗了百年耻辱,振奋了民族精神,)感到无比的骄傲和自豪。

江泽民:《十五大报告》)

译作:…we are very proud of it.

同样,单个英语单词也可以译成并列的同义词来加强生动性,如:

[15]We must have this ambition.

译作:我们就是要有这个雄心壮志。

4.反义词

反义词指在两个词项之间可以期待一种意义有区别的对比关系的词。其中又包括相反关系、互补关系、关系对立和序列关系。反义词在同一个句子或语篇中出现,其基本功能是使两个不同的语言成分在意义上形成明显的对照,从正反两个方面对某个或某些事物或现象进行描写,从而使所在的句子或语篇上下衔接,同时增强语言的表现能力,使听者或读者得到全面而生动的印象。如:

[16]And if Americans lack style it is partly because they have been taught for a generation that good writing is clear writing,which is true,and that clear writing must be excellent writing,which is false.

(H.S.Canby:The Writing of English)

[17]In fact,for the United States at least,and for the world when it gets around to it,scarcity has disappeared,as our vast unsalable and stored or destroyed supplies show.And,of course,plenty is at hand if we care,or are permitted,to distribute it.

(T.Dreiser:Scarcity and Plenty)

[18]These sweltering summers of the Negro’s legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality…There will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights.The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.

(Martin Luther King,Jr.:I Have a Dream)

[16]中的true和false这对反义词的出现,表明美国人对写作风格既有正确的一面,也有错误的一面,而写作风格的欠缺是源自其对写作风格的错误的理解。[17]中的scarcity和plenty的同现,将西方资本主义国家一部分人极端富有另一部分人极端贫困的现象展示在读者眼前,物资的相对过剩,使得穷人更加穷困,而富人则不断为了自身利益销毁相对剩余的物资。[18]中有两对反义词:sweltering和invigorating分别修饰summer和autumn,表明了马丁·路德·金向往自由和平等的迫切心情,tranquility和revolt的同现则有力地说明,只有让黑人获得充分的自由和平等,真正获得解放,才能使美国不产生社会动荡而获得真正的安宁。

[19]I dozed,dreamed,and forgot my dreams the moment I wakened.

(I.B.Singer:Neighbors)

[20]What Dr.King promised was not a ranch-style house and an acre of manicured lawn for every black man,but jail and finally freedom.

(A.Walker:The Civil Rights Movement:What Good Was It?)

[21]But genuine achievers are often those who fail for a long time.

(余建中,周德敏:《全国大学英语六级模拟试题》)

[19]中的doze和waken这对反义词的出现,表现了同一个人先睡后醒这两个截然相反的生理行为,从而把它们所在的两个小句从意义上紧密的联系在一起;[20]中的jail和freedom同现则生动的反映了马丁·路德·金对美国黑人解放斗争指明了道路,美国黑人解放斗争有着光明的前途,必须经过曲折的道路,要想最终获得自由,必须进行艰苦卓绝的斗争,甚至不惜坐牢;[21]中achieve(文中用的是其表示动作发出者的名词achiever)和fail这一对反义词一起出现,有力的说明了许多卓有建树的人总要经历风雨的洗练,厉兵秣马,才能成大器。

5.上下义关系

词汇衔接也可经词语间的上下义关系体现,即一个成分所表达的意义属于另一个成分所包含的意义范围之内,换言之,就是“A等于B的一种”。

上下义关系可分为两种情况,第一种情况是当上义词先出现,下义词后出现时,下义词的出现对相应的上义词都起到进一步说明、使意义更加明确的衔接作用,如:

[22]He wished for the thousandth time in his life that he had a dog,a golden retriever,maybe,for travels like this and to keep him company at home.

(R.J.Waller:The Bridges of Madison County)

[23]Marian had dreams of becoming a musician,a folksinger.

[22]中retriever更加具体的表达了他的愿望;[23]中folksinger则生动的体现了Marian渴望梦想成真的迫切心理。

另一种情况是下义词先出现,上义词后出现,后出现的上义词对上文相应的下义词都起到归类或概括的衔接作用,如:

[24]Convertible:n.[count]an automobile or boat with a folding top.

(Random House Webster’s Dictionary of American English:p.300)

[25]Henry’s bought himself a new Jaguar.He practically lives in the car.

[24]中automobile和boat对词项convertible做了明确的解释,[25]中car则对Henry买Jaguar的动机进一步做了解释。

6.搭配

许多词项倾向于在同一语境中出现,具有语篇衔接力,这样的衔接叫做搭配性衔接(Halliday,1976,2001:284)。属于组合搭配的分别有结果关系、修饰关系或者在语境中出现的参与者可以预期某种过程,或者从某种过程可以期待有关的参与者。搭配性衔接强调的是一系列词语在篇章中共现的潜在联想性(potential associativeness),例如laugh有可能会与joke经常发生联想,从而在语境中共现,再如boat往往会使人联想到row、sink等。搭配性衔接对语言信息的生成和解释均有一定的指导作用,有助于对篇章的潜在的语义演进作出预测和推测。试运用搭配性衔接理论分析如下文字:

[26]In recent years,youthful mind-benders have tripped on everything from airplane glue to morning-glory seeds.

在这段文字中搭配性衔接词项有:

——(youthful)mind-benders...have tripped on

——airplane glue...morning-glory seeds

mind-bender作“(服用致幻药的)吸毒者”解,常与trip在语境中共现,trip作名词用意指“(服用毒品后产生的)幻觉”;airplane glue和morning-glory seeds均指“致幻药”。整段文字可译作:“近年来,年轻的吸毒者服用种种迷幻药,从大麻烟卷烟蒂乃至牵牛花籽等应有尽有。”

[27]Such elements in an indirect lead may be referred to as “reads-on”.These dramatize the news,foreshadow events to come and create a sense of foreboding or of an unanticipated surprise.

在这段文字中搭配性衔接词项有:

——lead…read-ons…the news…events

——foreshadow…foreboding…an unanticipated surprise

这一段落旨在说明导语中的要素,即诱使读者读下去的要素。由lead可推测到reads-on的意义;foreshadow(预示)…foreboding(对不幸、灾祸等的预示)…an unanticipated surprise(未曾预料到的惊奇)等词语形成串联性的语义衔接。整段文字可译作:

“这种出现在间接新闻导语中的要素不妨可称之为‘引人入胜的要素’ 。这些因子为报道增添戏剧色彩,预示未来的事态,并诱发出一种山雨欲来风满楼或是出乎意料的惊奇之感。”

利用搭配性衔接手段可由主位(theme)推测或预测述位(rheme)的含义,即由已知信息揣测新信息的潜在意义。

[28]Ever since the dawn of the television age,when John F.Kennedy wiped the floor with Richard Nixon before he had opened his mouth(a lesson in“looksmanship”that Nixon never forgot),American politicians have been hitting the hair dye bottle and hiring “image consultants”.

这段文字粗一看感觉意义难以捉摸。但如果找到词项衔接的语义接口(指语篇的蕴含意义),问题就能迎刃而解。John F.Kennedy 和Nixon 在电视上展开了论战,前者取胜的法宝是形象塑造术(looksmanship),这就是语篇的蕴含意义。a lesson in “looksmanship”…hitting the hair dye bottle and hiring“image consultants”等词语,通过语义接口,构成系列性衔接,为篇章的连贯性提供了线索。整段文字可译作:

“电视时代开始以来,特别是约翰·F·肯尼迪在电视上未开口即击败理查德·尼克松(这种‘形象塑造术’较量的教训尼克松永世难忘)以来,美国政界人物对染发剂趋之若鹜,并纷纷聘请‘形象顾问’ ”。

[29]More than 2000 patients are dying annually while waiting for transplants,…The shortage of organs is so acute...

[30]The recovery of organs does not begin until after the heart stops beating and death is certified by a physician not affiliated with the transplant program.

上述两例都表明词语搭配的结果关系。例[29]中的“The shortage of organs”必然造成病人“waiting for transplants”,而例[30]中的“death”是“heart stops beating”的结果。从广义上说,“death”又会引出“certified”这个词语。

[31]For now,the new organ retrieval methods are being tested for kidneys——which can remain viable for 30 minutes to an hour after circulation ceases——and livers.

(Los Angeles Times 92.7.4)

上例则表明词语搭配的修饰关系。从语篇范围着眼,可以看到例[31]中“viable”不仅修饰“kidneys”,还修饰“livers”。

[32]honorable ambition(高尚的志向)

[33]insatiable ambition(贪得无厌的野心)

[34]a settled design(既定的计划)

[35]a criminal design(犯罪的企图)

[36]a strong musical bias(对音乐的强烈爱好)

[37]a racial bias(种族偏见)

同一词语与不同的词项搭配,也会形成褒贬不一的内涵意义。例[32]~[37]中,ambition,design和bias在与褒贬不同的形容词搭配时,产生了截然不同的意义。

总之,对于学外语的人来说,掌握目的语言的大量词汇无疑是相当困难而又十分重要的,但同样困难、同样重要的是掌握好这些词汇的正确用法,掌握好目的语言词项与词项的搭配习惯、理解他们的文化内涵。单个的词项好比是砖瓦,好比是机器的零部件,了解如何才能将砖瓦砌成房屋、如何才能将零部件组装成机器,方能真正达到学好外语的目的。词语的组合搭配在语篇中有衔接上下文的重要功能。

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