古建筑风格

古建筑风格Ancient Chinese Architecture

1中国原始社会房屋建筑的概况是怎样的?

How did prim itive dwellings evolve?

In primitive times，man resided in caves to protect himself from animals and the elements．As people began to live in tribes，they also started to build their dwellings．An ancient book says，“In the remote ancient times，people built their nests with wood in order to avoid being hurt by animals(上古之世……构木为巢，以避群害)．”They also dug the ground on hills to build caves for dwelling．According to archaeological studies，there were two kinds of dwellings built in the Neolithic Age in China，one of which was a cave type dwelling(半地穴式建筑)and the other a house on stakes(桩上建筑)．

The shape and depth of cave dwelling varied greatly．Therewere some piles or posts inside these buildings thatwere propped up in the middle of a house or between walls to support the roof．Rammed mud was added around the main posts to strengthen the base．Some mud wasmixed with fragments of pottery and burned soil in red; some post basesweremade of natural stone．

The roof was coated with mud mixed with grass．Beneath themud was firewood or straw thatwere spread on crossbeams and rafters placed on piles or posts．Some caves were deep inside，with no piles or posts．People simply placed eaves on walls．In addition，people plastered wallswith lime ormud mixed with grass in order to make their dwellings durable．Some walls had been fire-burnt for the same purpose．Some dwelling entranceways were a slope; some others had steps．Inside the dwellingswas a cooking pit in the ground，facing the entrance gate．This pit could be used to cook food，warm the family，and light the dwelling．

A house on stakes was prevalent across and to the south of the Yangtze River．Even till now this type of housing is still inhabited by people in Southwest China and by some ethnic minorities in Taiwan．This house is made of bamboo and couch grass(茅草)．Beneath the house isa low frameworkmade of erected stakes or bamboo，which hold the house above the ground．In the primitive society，people could even process the thick trees into suitable square stakes，planks，tenons(榫) and mortise(卯)．

In the later stages of primitive society，with the rise of the patriarchy family life，the family housing structure also developed．First the inner space shrunk．The dwellingmight be a single room or a pair of interlinked rooms．Some buildings had uprightwooden posts，forming walls around the dwelling on the ground．A house beam was erected in the centre of the dwelling structure，and two sloping sides on the roof covered the whole dwelling．Some large dwellings，which were built on the ground，appeared rectangle．Insidemight be one room alone or two interlinked rooms partitioned by awall and a shared kitchen range．Some walls had already been built with sun-dried mud bricks．In the primitive society appeared the wooden post network structure and the technology of tenon and mortise．These facts had laid the foundation for further developmentof the unique frame-work type housing construction in the country．

2中国进入阶级社会时的房屋建筑有什么变化?

What were the housing changes as classes emerged in Chinese society?

During the feudal society，people of different social levels lived in different dwellings．According to archeological discovery from village ruins dating from the Shang Dynasty，most of the dwellings were cave dwellings．These round or square dwellings appeared extremely simple and crude and did not have any underground foundation or rammed mud walls．

Dwellings owned by slave owners or nobles were constructed on the ground with sun-dried mud walls and wooden-post roofed frames．Most of these roofs sloped down on two sides or four sides．There were three types of dwellings: a single room，double rooms，or triple rooms．The indoor ground was smooth，and some of the ground，after being burnt twice by fire，was even smoother and harder．The palace ruins dating from the early Shang Dynasty were unearthed in Erlitou Village(二里头)，Yanshi area(偃师) in Henan．Based on its original form，the palace was a wooden building constructed on a rammed soil terrace．Corridors surrounded the palace，and the roof had double-eaves and sloped down on four sides．

During the Western Zhou Dynasty，the technology of housing architectures greatly developed: tiles covered roofs; walls were built with rammed soil and wooden boards; indoor ground and walls were plastered with mud mixed with yellow-colored soil，gravel，sand，and lime; drainage systemswere placed in and out of an architectural complex．The whole dwelling resembled the current northern styled compound with houses on four sides．

Notes:①ram夯实(土等)②triple三倍的③doubleeaves双屋檐④drainage排水系统⑤compound有围墙(或篱笆等的)住宅群

3汉朝末年中国建筑有什么特征?

Whatwere the features of ancient Chinese architecture by the end of the Han Dynasty?

Wooden housing had already existed by the Han Dynasty(206 BC－25 AD)．The framework consisted mainly ofwooden pillars and crossbeams perfectly interlocked with brackets so that thewholeweighton the roof and eaveswas transferred to its foundations through the pillars，beams，lintels，and joists．Walls bore no load; they only separated indoor space．Windows，doors，and walls were not restricted to certain locations on the house．Crossbeams were supported by the system of wooden brackets on the top of columns，which is one of the characteristics of ancient Chinese wooden architecture．

During the Han Dynasty，the construction had extensive sets of brackets on top of the columns．These brackets not only served as an attractive ornament，but also firmly strengthened the structure and helped the eaves extend further; this innovation came from the Shang Dynasty．

A Han dwelling House usually consisted of covered verandas，courtyards and multi-floor buildings．The main roof patterns in ancient Chinese architecture appeared at that time．These included the Wudian Roof(庑殿顶)，Xieshan Roof(歇山顶)，Yingshan Roof(硬山顶) and Xuanshan Roof(悬山顶)．TheWudian Roof has five ridges; one is horizontal and the other four have slightly sloping downward ridges(垂脊)on the four roofed sides．The Xieshan Roof includes one horizontal ridge，four slightly sloping downward ridges and still another four supporting ridges(戗脊)．Both the Yingshan and Xuanshan Roofs slope down on two sides in a simple fashion．The difference between Xuanshan and Yings-han Roofs is that eaves on the Xuanshan roof overextend beyond the tallwalls located at the sides of a building，and eaves on the Yingshan roof stay within the tall walls．

In addition，there were wooden-board doors，jointly patterned windows(交棂窗)，and curtains behind windows．In the Han Dynasty，bricks were not in full use yet so rammed soilwall still remained the norm．

Toward the end of theWestern Han Dynasty，a fortress-typemanor house appeared which had high walls enclosed this housing residence with a gate-room and an arch over the gate in the centre of the residence．The residence layout was similar to a courtyard with main rooms，kitchen，warehouse，lavatory，and pigsty．Some courtyards had a screen wall facing the main entrance gate，and even had the second entrance door in the courtwhich was usually called the front yard and the back yard; in the back yard were large rooms．

Notes:①interlock使连扣②lintel楣③joist栏栅;托梁;桁④bracket撑架;托座⑤column圆柱⑥veranda走廊⑦horizontal水平的⑧overextend过分延伸⑨fortress要塞⑩pigsty猪圈

4从唐朝到清朝房屋建筑的概况是怎样的呢?

How did architecture evolve from the Tang to the Qing Dynasty?

By the Tang Dynasty(618－907)，the ancient architecture thrived．Palaces，temples，and towers appeared in a large number across the country．Color glazed materials and carved stones were more common aswell．Strong brackets in the architecture linked with the roof beams，pillars，lintels and joists; bricks for wallswere available for large constructions．

During the Song Dynasty(960－1279)，the building models tended to be more beautiful using multiple plane surfaces and three-dimensions instead of dull and totally symmetrical patterns．Brick and stone constructions continued to develop and led to the birth of beamless brick and stone halls．By the Ming Dynasty，more beamless hallshad been constructed both in the North and South of China．

During the Ming and Qing dynasties(1368－1911)，some new changes took place in the wooden framework construction．Roof-beam architecture had been simplified，and a slanting roof-beam structure also came to be used．Some large buildings still used brackets that functioned as ornaments．Woodcut，stone or brick engravings，and decorative paintingswere hung in residents' houses．During this period，an official or landlord's residence was a closed housing complex big enough for a big family of four to five generations．Generally the room assignment reflected the feudal ethical codes and patriarchal system of that time．The eldermembers of a family lived in the main rooms，the younger generation in the side rooms，and servants in the inferior rooms．Women could not freely walk into the front yard，and visitorswere not allowed to enter the back yard．

Notes:①three-dimension有立体感②symmetrical匀称的③beam less无梁④roof-beam屋顶梁⑤slanting倾斜的⑥ornament装饰⑦assignment任务⑧inferior低等的

5古建筑如何反映了封建社会里的等级制?

How did ancient buildings reflect the social system of feudal China?

In ancient China，emperors，empresses，and princesses lived in imperial palaces．Undoubtedly the palaces rank as the highest class of building according to the ancient social system．The same class goes to the Majestic Buddha Hall(大雄宝殿)in a Buddhistmonastery and the Three Purity Hall(三清殿) in a Daoist Temple．These buildings appear typically magnificent because they have yellow glazed tiles，multi-layer eaves，the Wudian Roof，decorative paintings，painted dragons，phoenix patterns，and giant red gates．The residence owned by government officials and rich businessmen is called the Large-Type Housing Building(大式)．These buildings have no glazed tiles，and brackets on top of the columns reflect the social system．The third grade residence is called the Small-Type Housing Building(小式)used frequently by common people．

The raised base of the ancient architecture also reflects the social system of the feudal society．The ordinary base is simple and flat to support the small or Large-Type Housing Buildings．Another kind of the raised base is called the Xumi Seat Patterned Base(须弥座)which originally came from the pattern of the bottom base for a statue of Buddha．This Buddhist pattern came into the traditional Chinese architecture after Buddhism entered China．This structure supports important halls in the imperial palace complex aswell as buildings in a monastery or temple．The purpose is to show the resident's noble status and rank．In addition，this base haswhitemarble railings．The third kind of raised base is the superfine base that consists ofmulti-stone-floors; each floor is the Xumi Seat Patterned Base circled by jade stone railings．Themulti-floor base is only used to support key halls in the imperial palace complex and some key buildings in a monastery or a temple like the Hall of Supreme Harmony(太和殿) in the Forbidden City and the Dacheng Hall in the Qufu Confucian Temple(曲阜孔庙的大成殿)．According to The Canon Collection of the Qing Dynasty(《大清会典》)，the raised base is limited to 0．67 meter in height for the residence owned by high officials of the third rank and above，and 0．33 meters in height is for the residence owned by officials of the fourth rank and below．

A jian(间)or bay is the area within 4 pillars; one jian is approximately 15 squaremeters．According to the ancient social estate system，amain hall in the imperial palace usually is a 9-jian hall．During the Qing Dynasty，the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City was expanded from 9 jian to 11 jian in dimension to show imperial power．Under the Ming Dynasty，a top ranking duke's front，middle and rear hallswere permitted to extend to 7 jian，and his front gate was limited to 3-jian in space．Officials of the first to fifth ranks could have 7-jian major and minor halls．Officials of the sixth and seventh rankshad 3-jian major andminor halls．Ordinary citizenswere not permitted to have rooms ofmore than 3 jian in size although they were not limited to any specific number of rooms they could build．The Qing period saw many changes in these rules，but the system laid down by the Ming remained basically intact．

At the end of the sloping and branch ridges on ancient buildings，there are often a group of small animals called wenshou(zoomorphic ornaments，吻兽)．Their size and number are determined by the status of the owner of the building in the feudal hierarchy．The largest number of zoomorphic ornaments is found on the Hall of Supreme Harmony(太和殿) in the Forbidden City．A god riding a rooster，the first animal，leads the flock．Behind the god，comes a dragon，a phoenix，a lion，a heavenly horse，a sea horse and five othermythological animals．The Palace of Heavenly Purity(乾清宫) has nine animal figures; the Palace of Earthly Tranquility(坤宁宫)has seven; the other twelve halls used to house the imperial concubines each have five．

Notes:①undoubtedly无疑地②majestic尊严的③multilayer多层④glazed tile琉璃瓦⑤railing栏杆⑥approximately大约地⑦intact完整无缺的⑧zoomorphic兽形的⑨mythological神话的⑩concubine妾

6古建筑的色彩有什么特点?

What role did color p lay in ancient Chinese architecture?

The painting on ancient buildings functions as an ornament．Ancient architects applied decorative painting and color patterns to the roof beams and ridges in order to obtain the result of splendid ornament and display the status of the owner of the building accordingly．During the Warring States Period(475 BC－221 BC)，decorative paintings on roof beams had already existed in official buildings．In the Han Dynasty(206 BC－25 AD)，the popular painted images included floating clouds，celestial fairies，plants，and animals．Lotus petals were themost popular during the period of the Six Dynasties．After the Tang and Song dynasties(618－1279)，there weremore and more geometry and plant patterns; dark green replaced red．

In the Qing Dynasty(1616－1911)，decorative painting and color patterns commonly fell into several categories．The Hexi Five-color Decoration(合细五彩画) only decorated the key buildings in imperial palaces and altars．Usually，a dragon or a phoenix was painted on a green background，and paint lineswere gilded with gold powder or gold foil．Circular Color Decoration(旋子彩画)decorated government buildings，key buildings in temples，attached buildings of imperial palaces and altars．Suzhou Decoration developed into two schools: the southern and northern．Southern Suzhou Decoration focused on bright designs，and the Northern on landscapes，figures，flowers，and pavilions．

Notes:①decorative装饰的②splendid壮观的③geometry几何学④foil金属薄片⑤altar祭坛

7你能讲讲亭台楼榭吗?

Could you tellme something about towers and pavilions?

An ancient tower or pavilion is mainly built with wood．In some examples of their construction，nota single nail is used．Sets of brackets link up the joints of the wooden structures．Wooden teeth bite into points where wooden pieces or stuffmeet．

In ancient times，a tower(楼) functioned as a storage house for books，scriptures，and portraits of famous people．A tower can beautify a garden or a scenic spot，offering visitors a space where they are able to look far into the distance．Famous towers include Yueyang Tower(岳阳楼) in Hunan Province and the Yellow Crane Tower(黄鹤楼)in Hubei Province．

A pavilion(亭) usually has a roof but no walls．Most pavilions have gently upturned eaves，splendid glazed tiles，and bright red pavilion posts．Green trees，grass，and water often encircle the pavilion，forming a beautiful landscape．The Chinese often say that a pavil-ion represents humankind's place in the universe．During the Qin and Han dynasties，a pavilion was set up every 5 kilometers for the convenience of peoplewalking by whomight stop in for a rest or lodging．The pavilion functioned as a sentry box in border districts．Later on，the pavilion turned into a small-scale building in which a visitor could have a rest or overlook the scenery all around．In the Tang Dynasty(618－907)，itwas common to build pavilions in scenic places and gardens．The design of pavilions varies．Themost common design is the square shaped pavilion．A common feature of Chinese gardens is the waterside pavilion(台榭)which is half built on land and half raised on stilts above a body ofwater to offer a view from all sides．Through a combination of natural and artificial elements，designers seek balance and harmony between man and nature in their design．

Notes:①storage贮存②humankind人类③stilt支撑物