日本年轻人的案例研究

新媒体的使用和国家形象的建构：日本年轻人的案例研究

New Media Use and the Construction of National Images：A Case Study of Young People in Japan

Yuiko FUJITA,Yuko SHIKI

论文摘要：

在当今的多媒体和多频道的环境下,日本年轻人看电视的习惯已经显著地改变了。过去,日本年轻人与家庭成员一起在家里看电视节目,电视就成为联系家庭与国家的中心媒体,并定义了他们的国家观念和对其他国家形象的认知。但是,自从20世纪90年代中期开始,越来越多的20岁左右的男男女女们不再看电视,尤其是电视剧,并且,越来越多的年轻人依赖于新媒体,如互联网(YouTube, BBS,SNS等)、移动电话或是地面数位广播。

在这些情况下该研究试图探索：

1.新媒体的扩散是如何改变日本年轻人看电视的习惯的；

2.当电视作为全国媒介的重要性越来越弱时,日本年轻人是如何建构国际形象的。

关于研究方法,采用了受众的民族志学方法。我们对18个大学本科学生进行观测并且调查他们在家中是如何使用电视和新媒体的。然后,我们对他们进行定性的访问,主题是通过媒体建立起来的集体记忆。并且,我们对另一组22个年轻人进行访问,调查他们在新媒体(互联网)和传统媒体(电视、杂志、书籍等)的影响下是如何构建日本形象和其他国家的形象的。

结果我们发现了媒体使用的几种形式(包括仅仅看电视和使用多种媒体)、集体记忆的多种形式和构建亚洲、日本和西方形象的具体形式。

关键词：国家形象 电视 互联网 年轻人 日本

1.lntroduction

In today’s multimedia and multi-channel environment, the television viewing habits of young people in Japan have changed significantly.That is,in the past,young Japanese watched television programs with their family members at home, and television became an overarching medium linking the family with the state, defining their national consciousness, and their image of other nations.However, since the mid 1990s, the number of men and women in their 20s who do not watch television(especially serial dramas) has been increasing.Further, an increasing number of young people rely on“new”media such as the Internet(YouTube,BBS, or SNS), cell phones, or one-segment broadcasting.Under these conditions, it becomes important to investigate how such changes in media use influence the construction of national images among young people in Japan today.This study, therefore, attempts to explore the following two questions：

(1)How has the diffusion of“new”media changed television viewing habits among young Japanese?

(2) How do young Japanese construct national images, as television is becoming less important as a national medium?

We conducted two case studies on young Japanese and used audience ethnography as a research method.First, we conducted participant observation of eighteen undergraduate students and investigated how they used television and“new”media at home.Second, we conducted interviews with another group of twenty-two young people and investigated how they constructed national images under the influence of“new”media(the Internet)and“old”media(television).Since these case studies use a relatively small number of samples, our objectives are not to generalize results, but to find some significant patterns of the construction of national images in relation to“new”and“old”media use.

2.Participant Observation：New Media and National lmages

In this section, we will discuss the results of participant observation of undergraduate and graduate students, which investigated how they use television and“new”media at home(approximately two hours per respondent).We then conducted qualitative interviews concerning media usage in their everyday lives.The duration of each interview was between thirty minutes and one hour,and the interviews were recorded on an IC recorder.All the observations and interviews were completed in the early summer of 2008.The sample was comprised of 18 students from the Tokyo or Chiba areas.Their demographics and media environment are presented in table 1.

3.Patterns of New Media Usage while Watching Television

Based on the observation, the major categories of media usage patterns are identified.These categories can be regarded as the main patterns of media usage among Japanese youth because they were frequently observed with different respondents.The categories identified are as follows：(1)television viewing only,(2) parallel use of media(such as using the Internet, reading or writing e-mails, or reading the newspaper while watching television), and(3) the use of a personal computer to watch television.

Television viewing only

Many of the respondents tended to concentrate only on the television while watching programs that interested them or programs that had a good story line, such as movies on DVD, dramas, and prerecorded programs.On the other hand, while watching programs that did not interest them, almost all the students simultaneously engaged in another activity(chores, eating, studying, etc.).Moreover,some of the respondents gradually began to focus their attention on the other activity rather than on watching television.In such cases, the television programs were ignored and became background video(BGV).During the interviews, one respondent described an interesting habit of hers as follows：

When I feel the broadcasted program is not interesting, Isurf through the regular broadcast TV channels.When I cannot find any interesting programs there, I turn on the cable channels and surf again.Even if I cannot find any programs among the cable channels, I keep the music channel on(e.g., MTV)and do another activity while listening to the music from the television.In that case, I do not watch the TV screen, but only listen to the sound(Student P).

From this statement, we understand that the television can also be used as background music (BGM) rather than as BGV, which could be regarded as a new way of using the television.

When the respondents watched television, they always kept the remote control device by their side.They would surf through the other channels during commercial messages(CM)or when the theme of a particular program failed to interest them.In particular, the respondents were frequently observed changing channels during news programs.The reason behind this tendency was that Japanese evening news programs repeat the same news at specified time intervals, and thus, the respondents were not interested since they had already watched a particular news program.

Parallel use of media

With the Internet：Among the various patterns involving the parallel use of media, the leading combination is most likely the simultaneous use of the television and the Internet.In general, the respondents accessed the Internet through their personal computers.In addition, the combined usage of television and cell phone was also observed, although it was relatively uncommon.

The respondents used the Internet to search for two main types of content：television-related content and non-television-related content.As an example of television-related content,Student K was observed using the Internet to search for detailed information about a drama she was watching,such as its plot,its characters,and the actors’previous performances in other television programs.Another example of searches for television-related content was seen with student N.She was watching a news program reporting a helicopter accident in Aomori(in this news report, it was suggested that a popular newscaster was among the missing).The moment she saw this piece of news, she turned on her personal computer and accessed the Internet to read more news articles about the accident.She stated that“it’s awful”and appeared to be very surprised and upset.

The above-mentioned examples reveal that viewers tend to turn to the Internet when they want more detailed information about the television program they are watching at the time.

Another purpose of checking television-related content on the Internet is indicated by the activity of Student A, who frequently posted on Bulletin Board Systems(BBSs)such as on 2-channel while watching programs.Note that 2-channnel is the biggest BBS in Japan.Student A enjoyed conversing with people who were watching the same programs as he.This pattern may be interpreted as quasi-communication with others and is more likely to be observed in people who live or watch television alone.However, this point requires further examination.When using the Internet to check contents related to a television program, all the respondents were seen to pay equal attention to both the television and the Internet.Occasionally, Student A would choose to watch a program that became popular on the BBS.This suggests that communication through the Internet could influence the program selections of individuals.

The respondents were also frequently observed searching the Internet for content not related to television while watching television.For example, while watching television, the respondents would simultaneously visit shopping sites or social networking sites(SNS), or search for part-time job information or their favorite artists’concert schedules.In these cases, the respondents would concentrate more on their Internet activities, but would divert their attention to the television when they heard a loud noise(e.g., laughter, music).

It is noteworthy to mention that the parallel use of the Internet and television tended to be limited to the respondents who had an Internet media device(a personal computer in most cases) and a television in the same room.In the case where the personal computer was in a different room, the respondents would not use it even if it was easy to carry.Thus,accessibility might be a key point in the usage of Internet media while watching television.

With e-mail：During observation, respondents were also frequently observed e-mailing while watching television.Almost all the e-mails were sent and received via cell phones, although the contents were not related to the television programs being watched.Remarkably, only one respondent sent an e-mail to his friend about the program he was watching—he thought that the program would interest his friend.Interestingly, upon receiving an e-mail, even the respondents who were watching the television attentively would stop watching in order to read or reply to the e-mail.

With newspapers：The section of the newspaper that was read the most by the respondents was the one containing the television program schedule.The respondents tended to use it as a reference while surfing channels.When they could not find an interesting program, they would turn to the other part of the newspaper.However,in general,the respondents read other articles only during the CMs and attentively watched television while the programs were shown.

Judging from the above, many of the respondents seemed to consider it a waste of time to watch television attentively without doing some other activity.They devised a means of using television to pick up only the information they wanted to get,and one of the solutions may be using another media at the same time.

Watching television programs on the Internet

The use of the Internet(and not a television set) to watch television programs is rapidly gaining popularity among the youth, and the respondents of this research were no exception.Several respondents watched television programs on their personal computers by using video hosting services such as YouTube(US), Veoh(US), or NicoNico-Doga(Japan).Moreover, of the various contents offered by these services, dramas and excerpts from entertainment shows were the most watched.For example,the respondents would watch dramas that they had missed during the televised times or entertainment shows that their friends had considered to be funny.One respondent who would watch a drama on Veoh stated as follows：

Whenever I watch dramas, I use the Internet through the personal computer in my room.I always watch it this way because I can watch it when I feel like watching it.Ihardly use the HDD recorder for dramas since what I want to watch is always available on the web(Student Q).

Her statement puts forth two important points.First, the use of the Internet is favored because it frees them from restrictions like television schedules.Thus, they can watch programs (even the ones they missed)whenever they choose.In this sense, a computer is used in the place of a video/HDD recorder.Second, a personal computer tends to be used as a private television, especially among the young people who do not have their own television set.Student Q lives with her family and cannot use the television freely.In addition, she might prefer being alone while watching television so as not to be interrupted during a program.This tendency is identified from the comments of another respondent(student K) who lives alone.She stated as follows：

Now, it is good for me that I can watch the program attentively.When I lived with my family, I would be interrupted again and again by family members while watching the television.For example, my parents would say to me“take a bath”or something...(Student K).

The respondents also indicated that while they preferred to be alone when watching a drama program, they enjoyed watching entertainment shows with other people.Thus, their preferences while watching television varied according to the program they were watching.

Conclusions Drawn from the Audience Ethnography

As previously noted, we investigated how the diffusion of“new”media has changed television viewing habits among Japanese youth.During our observations, we found that while watching television, they would frequently engage in activities that involved another media type(Internet, e-mail, and newspapers).Although the type of media varied in different situations, they showed remarkable consistency in the parallel usage of media；they would engage in another activity when they were not interested in the televised program.On the other hand, they would focus exclusively on the television when a program of their interest was being televised.

The parallel use of other media while watching television appears to reflect the youth’s desire to use their time efficiently.Many Japanese undergraduate students find themselves to be extremely busy, some owing to their active social life or involvement in extracurricular activities such as sports, and some because they work part-time after their classes.This may generate new (and extremely busy) patterns of media usage.

Another interpretation of multiple media usage is explained by the convenience of the“new”media, particularly the Internet.For example, when a program on television arouses a person’s curiosity, the Internet enables him/her to immediately access the desired information.

The Construction of National Images

As noted above, the diffusion of“new”media has to a great extent changed the patterns of media usage of Japanese youth.Here, we would like to explore whether this change has also influenced their construction of national images.Following participant observation, we conducted additional phone interviews with three students(one male and two females).First, we solicited their general opinions of China,Europe and the United States(ōbei in Japanese),and Japan.Next, we asked the students to explain what shaped their stated opinion of a particular country.The interviews were conducted in September 2008, and their duration was between 10 and 20 minutes.

The lmage of China

The respondents appeared to have both positive and negative images of this country.They associated words and phrases like“panda,”“the(Chinese-made) Gyoza scandal,”“Beijing Olympic Games,”“delicious Chinese food,”and“economic development”with China.In addition, they had the following impressions about Chinese people：“I don’t know what they are thinking,”“their sensibilities are different from Japanese ones,”and“I think they can be more assertive.”They stated that these perceptions of China and its people were shaped by television news reports or newspapers, and they displayed a notable consistency with respect to this point.For instance, the respondents said that the television news reports regarding the demonstrations carried out in China or the controversy that Japanese cartoon characters were used illegally in a Chinese theme park generated the above impressions about Chinese people.One respondent who occasionally engages in discussions on China on the BBSstated as follows：

The conversations with other people on the BBS do not influence my national images now.These were possibly influential when I was an elementary or junior high school student, but now it does not have such an impact(because I have my own opinion).

As far as we can infer from the above comment, the Internet does not seem to influence the Japanese youth’s perceptions of other countries as much as television does.

The lmage of Europe and the United States

The respondents appeared to have extremely positive images with regard to Europe, which is evident from their descriptions of these countries, such as“beautiful scenery,”“the preservation of many traditional things(e.g., buildings)”and“fashionable.”They suggest that their national images were influenced by television programs concerning travels through Europe, the Paris Fashion Week, and movies.Meanwhile, the respondents used phrases such as“the strongest country,”“new,”and“a little terrible,”in describing their perception of the United States.One respondent put forth the following opinion about the United States：

When it comes to the relationship between Japan and the United States,it seems to me that Japan is just complying with the United States.The two have a problem concerning Okinawa, and the impact of war after the terrorism has still remained in my mind.I will regard the United States as strong and terrible, should the relationship get worse.

This respondent went on to state that the information she received from television news reports and talk shows influenced her perception of the United States.

Another student—who uses the Internet frequently—said that he received relatively little information about Europe and the United States from television programs, owing to which he did not read or post his opinions of these countries on the BBSas he did in the case of China.

The Image of Japan

All the respondents we interviewed seemed to have a more negative than positive perception of Japan and its people.One respondent who had lived in New Zealand for one year declared that the Japanese“are serious”and“work too much.”She stated as follows：

When I was in New Zealand, I saw the people leave work in the afternoon on Fridays....Based on that experience,I feel that the Japanese work too hard.Ithink Ibegan to think so by comparing the Japanese to people from other countries.

Another respondent said that“the Japanese cannot say‘NO’”or“Japan is economically developed, but fraying at the edges(e.g., the problems of social security system and education, and the indifference of the Japanese to them).”They agreed on the point that their national images of Japan are also influenced by books or book titles.

4.Audience lnterviews：The lmages of“the West”and“Asia”

In this third section, we will look at the results of in-depth interviews with another group of twenty-two young Japanese, in order to investigate the construction of national images by young Japanese in more detail.It is said that Japan’s modern national identity has always been imagined in an asymmetrical totalizing triad between“the West”,“Asia”and“Japan.”In this section, therefore, we will explore how young Japanese construct their images of“the West”and“Asia”in relation to the image of Japan under the influence of media(e.g., books and magazines, television, or the Internet).In so doing, mental world maps, images of the West(especially America), and images of Asia(especially China and South Korea)are examined respectively.

Mental World Maps

During their interviews, all respondents were asked to draw a world map and write place names on it.They drew a variety of world maps consisting of unique shapes of continents and national boundaries, which show some significant patterns.First, all of them put Japan at the centre of the world, just as Japan is at the centre on many maps of the world printed in Japan.Moreover, on their world maps, Japan tends to be larger than Japan is on the Mercator projection or azimuthal equidistant projection world maps.So Japan is both at the centre, and“large,”in their own mental geographies.Second, some people, especially those in the New York group, put Japan much closer to the United States(see Mental Map 1, 2, 3, 4), compared to regular world maps.

Mental maps

1.Respondent A(male, age 29)

2.Respondent B(male, age 25)

3.Respondent C(female, age 23)

4.Respondent D(female, age 27)

5.Respondent E(male, age 25)

6.Respondent F(female, age 30)

Respondent E even put New York City on the west of the North American continent(see Mental Map 5).Many of these respondents said that they heard about America most frequently in their everyday lives in Japan, and it seems that they also imagine Japan as literally very close to America, geographically.Third, they tended to focus on the West far more than the rest of the world：that is, all respondents drew either the North American continent or the United States；nearly all respondents drew either Europe or European countries；however, most respondents omitted the Middle East；and about one fourth of the respondents omitted Asia and Africa.In their mental geographies, therefore, the West is very significant, whereas“the Third World”is often forgotten.One good example is respondent F’s map, which places Japan between Europe and the United States(see Mental Map 6).

The Image of the West

Then, let’s look at their image of“the West”.According to Naoki Sakai, the notion of“the West”is a name always associating itself with those regions, communities, and peoples that appear politically or economically superior to other regions, communities, and peoples(Sakai 1988：476).In the Japanese language, there are two words closest to the English phrase“the West.”One isōbei(欧米), whose Chinese character,ōrepresents“Europe”and bei represents “America.”The other is seiyō(西洋), whose Chinese character sei represents“west”and yō represents“ocean.”Both words are usually translated into“the West.”

Most respondents consider thatōbei(Europe-America)means the United States, and to a lesser extent, Europe；seiyō(west-ocean) corresponds to Europe, which is particularly symbolized by France.In addition, some respondents say thatōbei or seiyōis the place where white people live：

Actually, I’ve never thought about what the West means.Seiyōis opposite to the East,isn’t it?Well, it’s white people.Where isōbei?My impression ofōbei is not so white.Seiyōis medieval.ōbei is contemporary(Respondent G, female, age 27)

From seiyō, I recall Michelangelo’s oil paintings.It’s Western Europe, inland, from Belgium to Austria.When it comes toōbei, I think of America....News media usually use the word oh-bei.In that case, it is usually about America.Seiyōis related to Western art history or Western cuisine.(Respondent H, female, age 25)

These young people tend to thinkōbei,(which corresponds to America and, to a lesser extent, Europe)is“now,”“contemporary,”and“popular.”In contrast, they tend to think of seiyō(which connotes Europe, and most especially France)as“cultural”and“classical.”The latter seems to be because seiyōis often seen in textbooks in the field of arts and history.For example, they remember the words,“Western art history,”“Western cuisine,”“the history of Western clothes,”and “Western medicine.”According to those who mentioned France, French culture was often introduced in art or history classes in school.Thus, for them, at least two ideas of“the West”exist.As each respondent has a slightly different idea about where the West is, it is difficult to define the borders of the West in their mental geographies.

The Image of“America”

Among Western countries, respondents have a great sense of affinity to“America”and assume that their everyday life in“America”will be almost the same as their everyday life in Japan.This is partly because American military bases and American popular culture have greatly influenced Japan since the USOccupation.According to Shunya Yoshimi,in the early Post War period,“America”had been an object of admiration among young people.By the late the 1970s, however, it had become part of the quotidian life of Japanese people, partly because media have been conveying a great quantity of mediated images of“America”to them over a long period(Yoshimi 2003).

For these respondents, American popular culture is not an exotic yet distant object of admiration, but rather, has become part of everyday life.For example, respondent I(female, age 20)says,“I think life in America is the same as life in Japan.I don’t admire America”.In fact,these young people, who come from the middle class in Japan, can enjoy the same economic standard of living at home as middle-class young people do in the United States.Therefore, they seldom talk about ambitions for a“modern”lifestyle or emphasize America as the place of “progress.”By contrast, in Tarik Sabry’s research, young middle-class Moroccans associated the West or America with“superiority,”“progress,”and“development”(Sabry 2003：163-74).

Media has greatly influenced their image of America.Among all respondents, half of them have long had a great interest in American popular culture,and have had much access to images of “America”by American television programs and movies since their childhood.For example, respondent J, who has travelled to New York City(female, age 22)says：

I have often watched American television programs；Beverly Hills 90210,Full House, and Ally McBeal.I’ve watched American programs since I was in junior high school.I’ve been interested in America for a long time.As for movies, I only watch American ones.I also like Soul Food.

A few respondents have never been to the United States.Yet they also come to hold a particular image of the country mainly through the media：

Iimagine people wear long coats[in New York City].They are eating MacDonald’s hamburgers.There are many galleries.There is the Empire State Building....I sometimes read travel books.I’ve read art books in the library.Ihave seen Basquiat and Taxi Driver.They are so impressive.(Respondent B who has never travelled to USA, male, age 25)

Although America is not an object of admiration for these young Japanese, they have positive images of America.According to their accounts,such images are constructed mainly by American television programs and movies, Japanese television programs, and to a lesser extent, Japanese books, magazines, and websites, as described above.

The Image of Asia

Over all, respondents have positive images of the West, and have a great sense of affinity to America.However, when asked,“Do you think Japan is part of the West?”no one answered “Yes.”Instead, most respondents said that Japan was part of Asia because Japan and Asia were similar in terms of“appearances,”“culture,”“race,”“mentality,”or“geography.”For example, respondent J(female, age 27)says,

In the long history of Japan, we are greatly influenced by Chinese culture, and the Japanese race is similar to the Chinese race.When I visited Ishigaki Island(of Okinawa), I found people use very vivid colors there, and Ryukyu culture is closer to Taiwanese or Chinese culture....But it is still part of Japan.Japan is an independent nation, but it is influenced by many other nations.We can’t find a clear separation between Japanese culture and other(Asian) cultures.

In this way, most respondents regard Japan as similar to or part of Asia.However, some respondents insist that Japan is superior to other Asian countries, as respondent K(male, age 26) notes,“Japan is more privileged than any other yellow race in Asia.”According to Koichi Iwabuchi, while“the West”played the role of the modern Other to be emulated,“Asia”was cast as the image of Japan’s past, a negative portrait which illustrates the extent to which Japan has been successfully modernized.However, the Japanese discursive construction of“Asia”is marked by the impossibility of a clear separation between Japan and Asia.In its history, the issue of “commonality and difference”in Japan’s relationship to other Asian nations was often understood in terms such as“similar but superior”or“in but above Asia”(Iwabuchi, 2002：6-16).

Even so, these respondents often point out newly growing Asian powers.For example, they say,“South Korea and China have been dramatically developing.During the World Cup Soccer, unlike Japan, the whole nation supports their national football team.They have a‘hungry spirit’(respondent K, male,age 26).”or“Now Ihope to visit New York and China most.China seems to be rising.I studied dancing and I heard that China is rising in the field of dance as well”(respondent I, female, age 20).Probably, these accounts have been influenced by Japan’s new Asian identity widely diffused in the 1990s.According to Iwabuchi, in the 1990s, the rise of global Asian economic power has pushed Japan to once again stress its“Asian”identity, as Japan could not neglect Asia as a vital market for its products.Then, the question of how to“return”to Asia has re-emerged as an important economic and political issue for Japan.Economic motives for the return to Asia have often been disguised with nostalgic racial and/or cultural justifications (Iwabuchi, 2002：12-3).

According to respondents,the above images of Asia,especially China and South Korea,have been constructed under the influence of media.Yet, they show different patterns of media exposure and image construction, in comparison with their image of America.Among all respondents, one female respondent has been interested in Korean popular culture and television dramas, and has had access to these.However, other respondents have had little interest and access to Asian popular media.Rather, it is mainly Japanese television, and to a lesser extent, Japanese books,magazines, and websites that have conveyed visual images and information about China or South Korea to them.

This may explain why these young Japanese tend to simultaneously have both positive and negative images of Asian nations.Most of the young Japanese have been exposed to a considerable amount of American popular culture or television programs and movies, which are likely to influence their images positively.On the other hand, if respondents have been exposed to visual images and information about China and South Korea mainly through Japanese television, which convey not only positive images of these nations, but also negative and biased ones, these young Japanese are not likely to recall as many good images as those of America.

5.Conclusions

Considering the above, it seems reasonable to conclude that the construction of national images with respect to foreign countries is still significantly influenced by the“old”media(especially television) rather than the“new”media(especially the Internet).

That is, in the second section, we found that respondents often use“new”media(the Internet and cell phone) while watching television, and this was notably different from old television viewing habits.Nevertheless, few respondents say that they are influenced by“new”media when they form images of foreign countries.One respondent(male)stated that he often participated in discussions on foreign countries or Japan on the BBS.However, this did not influence his opinion of national images.Further, it appeared that the women rarely used the Internet for obtaining information about either foreign countries or Japan.Moreover, as far as Japan was concerned, the respondents’perceptions of Japan appeared to be influenced by the opinions conveyed by foreigners.

In the third section, we found that respondents had positive images of the West, especially America, and such images were constructed mainly by American television programs and movies and Japanese television programs.However, with regard to the images of Asian nations, most respondents have had little access to Asian television programs.Rather, it is mainly Japanese television programs that have conveyed visual images and information about China or South Korea to them.This may lead young Japanese to have both positive and negative images of Asian nations, as Japanese television is still likely to convey negative and biased images of Asian nations.

Thus, these case studies show that although the use of“new”media is diffused among the respondents, it is still“old”media, or television that constructs their national images.As this study employed participant observation and qualitative interviews and used a small number of samples, further research is necessary in order to know whether or not these tendencies can be seen generally among young people in Japan.

〔Yuiko FUJITA,Associate Professor, Institute for Media and Communications Research, Keio University, Japan；Yuko SHIKI,Researcher, Institute for Media and Communications Research, Keio University,Japan〕