广告与印度的国家形象

国际传播、广告与印度的国家形象

International Communication, Advertising and India’s National Image

Keval J.KUMAR

论文摘要：

国家和政府通常认为国际传播是一个宣传不实际的国家形象的工具,用于宣传其人民、政治、文化和经济。发达国家和发展中国家从他们自己所想象的社会来夸大范围和宽度地讲述“国家”故事。短波收音机、卫星电视、影片发行、网络、新闻场所、新闻日志、搜索引擎、社会新闻网等在国家致力于国际传播中发挥很大作用。国家间争夺奥运会、世界杯、F1赛车举办权及其他全球性的体育和文化事件,但是其目的并不仅仅是要促进体育或是文化事业,还要宣传他们的国家形象。广告和公共关系在代表国家剔除负面新闻方面发挥着积极作用。多种形式的活动不仅能够丰富和改变国家的大众媒体和新媒体,而且也能够丰富和改变国家形象。印度并没有落后。目前,尽管印度打算以高速发展的经济实力和软实力来吸引世界的注意力,印度正为争取2020年奥运会在新德里的主办权而努力。

本论文将评论政府和企业为促进印度在本国内、更重要的是在海外媒体中国家形象方面所做的多种努力。文章主要从文化、政治、经济和公共关系方面来评估两个主要的全球广告活动——“闪耀的印度”和“惊人的印度”；同时对一些主要的文化节日进行。此外印度在国际媒体的表现也在研究之列。本文将提出一些批判性的问题,如：国家形象的本质是什么?印度通过广告、公共关系和其他媒体战略想要构建的国家形象是什么?在众多竞争性和矛盾性形象同在的大背景下,国家形象的可信度有多少?

The international communication order has witnessed a radical change in the dynamics of the ebb and flow of national information and entertainment since the publication in 1980 of UNESCO’s MacBride Commission Report entitled‘Many Voices, One World’.In the post-Cold War years, satellite communications, the worldwide web, mobile telephony and new modes of delivering print,electronic and digital media to audiences around the globe have challenged the dominance of multinational monopolies and oligopolies in International Communication.A power shift has indeed taken place with developing nations galloping ahead in terms of expansion of media industries and even in the global distribution of both information and entertainment products(Sinclair：2004).Yet the‘flow’of images continues to be unidirectional, largely from the countries of the North to those of the South.The flow of‘national images’from home countries to the nations of the world has certainly increased manifold, but stereotypical images of poorer regions and nations continue to dominate International Communication(Cf.Thomas and Nain：2004)

However, there is a glaring contradiction between the stereotypical images of nations presented in the international news and entertainment media and those that national governments themselves project, particularly through advertising in the same media.Advertising is just one of the many tools used in‘national image management’.Other tools include public relations, strategic public communication, news management, media management and media diplomacy (Cf.Giffard and Rivenburgh：2000).However, there is a contradiction between the‘luxurious’images presented in advertising campaigns and the sports, crime, disaster and political orientation of both global and national news channels.There is also a shocking contradiction between the glowing advertising images, especially in tourism advertising, and the harsh realities of daily life in the developing world.

This paper will examine some of the contradictions between the images of nations in news channels and‘national images’of government-sponsored advertising campaigns, with particular reference to two advertising campaigns of the Indian Government’s Ministry of Tourism；the‘India Shining’campaign of 2003-2004 and the ongoing‘Incredible India’campaign since 2002.The context of this discussion on‘image politics’of national governments will be the recent trends in International Communication and in particular, International Advertising.The paper will also raise critical questions about the nature, source and credibility of‘national images’(with particular reference to travel and tourism advertising).

lnternational Communication and National lmages

Nations and governments often look at International Communication as an instrument for propagating romantic‘national images’of their people, culture, politics and economics.Both developed and developing countries hog the spectrum and the bandwidth to tell their‘nationaI’stories in terms of their own‘imagined communities’(Anderson：1991) Shortwave radio, satellite television, film distribution, the internet, news sites, news blogs, search engines, social networks, and video/image-sharing websites are all grist to the mill of national efforts in International Communication.Nations vie with one another to project themselves on these media, and to hold the Olympics,the World Cup,Formula 1,and other global sports and cultural events.However,the objective is not so much to promote sports or culture as to propagate their‘national images’.Advertising and Public Relations play a vital role in pitching on behalf of nations for all these events, many of which can be called‘pseudo-events’(Boorstin：1961)

This is particularly true of the international news agencies.Transnational news agencies such as Thomson-Reuters, Associated Press, AFPand DPA continue to rule the roost in both print and broadcast media；digital and telecom media also depend on them for international news coverage and news alerts.‘Images’of nations and peoples are central to the dissemination of international news(Giffard and Rivenburgh：2000).Giffard and Rivenburgh(ibid.)analysed the transnational news agencies’reporting of six major United Nations summit meetings held in different countries.Each country vied with the others to host the summit meetings for the potential they had in enhancing their national image and prestige.

The BBC, CNN, Al Jazeera and other global broadcasters do provide alternatives to the traditional transnational agencies but they are not in the same league.For domestic news, the national news agencies continue to dominate, especially in the print media.Still, television news channels face increasing challenges from other local players.This is particularly true of the music and entertainment arenas.Indian films and Mexican television telenovelas, for instance, enjoy a large global market, and completely monopolise the local markets.In advertising, multinational mega-agencies and media agencies have a major presence, as in India.While it has been argued that‘glocalisation’(Robertson：1995)and cultural‘hybridity’(Appadurai：1996)have become the hallmarks of indigenous mass media(including advertising), there is no gain saying that the influence of multinational media conglomerates such as Time-Warner, Disney and NewsCorp is inescapable.

lnternational News in lndia

A recent analysis of International Communication with particular reference to the news media is Shoemaker and Cohen’s(2006) study.It analyses news reporting in ten countries(the United States, Australia, Germany, Israel, India, Jordan, et al), using an extensive sample of 20 newspapers, 20 TV news bulletins, and 20 radio news bulletins over a constructed week in 20 cities of ten countries.This suggests that the seven major topics of more than two-thirds of all news stories were：sports, internal politics, cultural events, business, international politics, internal order and human interest stories(ibid.).

According to Shoemaker and Cohen(2005), the Indian news media prioritised the following six topics：internal politics, sports, internal order, business, industry, and cultural events(ibid.).It is to be noted that social issues like poverty, malnutrition, foeticide, and dowry deaths were conspicuous by their absence.The study did not of course focus on‘national images’per se, but rather on national and international‘events’as re-constructed by the print and electronic media.Yet, the routine selection of news events that tell particular stories of nations does project, at least indirectly, a clutch of‘images’of nations that gradually evolves into‘stock images’.

My own analysis of international news reporting in Indian news channels has taken a similar approach(Kumar：2006).In order to gauge the extent of the coverage of‘international news’on Indian television I examined the content of prime-time news bulletins on New Delhi Television (NDTV) over a period of two consecutive weeks from 10-24 February 2005.NDTV has two around-the-clock news channels, one in English called NDTV 24/7, and the other in Hindi called NDTV News.Imonitored the English news channel and also DD News, the national news channel of Doordarshan, India’s public broadcaster.In addition, I surveyed the prime-time news bulletins on both BBC World and CNN International to check on missing international stories on NDTV.All these around-the-clock news channels can be accessed only via cable and satellite.There is no terrestrial news channel, though most of the general entertainment channels do have some news slots, especially at prime-time.

There were no foreign stories reported at all, except in the‘newsbars’, on February 12 and 21.USPresident George Bush’s visit to Germany, the German reactions to the visit, and the NATO summit in Europe(February 21 to 23) were highlighted with live relays and elaborate analytical reports on BBCand CNN,but found no mention at all in the main bulletins of NDTV.This was the case also with stories from the Middle East.There was little coverage of the continuing violence or of the elections in Iraq, or of the protests and counter-protests in the streets of Beirut following the Rafiq Hariri assassination.NDTV and DD News were satisfied with picking up snippets from the transnational agencies’reports.Indeed, Iraq and the Middle East in general are no priority interests for the Indian media.The Kyoto Protocol on climate change(February 15) received much more detailed analysis.Pope John Paul’s hospitalization too was accorded good coverage.

Europe received minimal coverage on NDTV’s prime time news bulletins.The British royal family received prominent attention on two consecutive days(February 10, 11 and 23) on NDTV’s English news channel and also on rival Hindi news channel Aaj Tak, but no mention at all on DD News, the public broadcaster.In fact, the engagement of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker-Bowles was the lead story,receiving considerable coverage on both private news channels.On February 23, NDTV informed its viewers that“Queen Elizabeth will not attend her son’s wedding, but this was not a snub!”It was also reported that the lunchbox-carriers(‘dabbawallas’)of Bombay were invited to the royal wedding and would present the bride with a nine-yard-long saree.The only other British news story that figured prominently on NDTV was about footballer David and Victoria(of Spice Girls fame)Beckham celebrating the birth of their third son.“Mother and baby are fine”, concluded the reporter.

However, the most prominent coverage of international news was accorded to India’s relations with its neighbours in South Asia.During the two-week sample, India’s relations with Pakistan received extensive coverage.Pakistan was the lead story on at least three days,February 13, 16 and 22.Subsequently, the focus was not so much on the‘conflict’between the two countries, but on confidence-building measures such as the new bus service introduced between Srinagar and Muzaffarabad, or the scheduled Indo-Pakistan cricket series that was under threat because of the possibility of there being no television coverage of the series(“No TV,no series”, remarked the commentator).Pakistani nuclear scientist Khan’s sale of nuclear weapon plans to Iran were investigated on February 13.On February 20 there was a lengthy report entitled‘The New Pakistan：Bridging the Divide’.Nepal’s clampdown on Maoist rebels and their demand for a return to democracy were reported on February 13, 14, 19 and 23；Nepalis in Delhi voiced their protests in street demonstrations.

The outside world enters the primarily national news bulletins only when one of its top leaders (for example, the Prime Minister) travels overseas.Thus, Oxford University’s conferment of an honorary doctorate on Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh(February 15), his visit to Afghanistan, and his meeting with President Karzai(February 24), were taken to be, and were presented as,‘internationaI’news stories.

For most‘internationaI’stories one had to go to the‘newsbars’of television news channels.Following the practices of Western news channels such as BBC World, CNN International and CNBC, Indian channels crowd the bottom of the television screen with sliding or rolling‘bars’that provide‘breaking news’, latest updates, news summaries, and national and international news that cannot be accommodated in the around-the-clock news bulletins.Thus, much of the international news that has little direct relevance to Indian interests is carried in those‘newsbars’.Indeed, on Indian channels much of the news, say on developments in Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan or even Eastern Europe is carried in‘newsbars’.The prominence given to national and regional news in the main bulletins leaves little time or space for the kind of international news events highlighted by the global players in the television market.

lnternational Advertising

Advertising has become a vital part of International Communication and plays a crucial role in ‘national image management’strategy(Giffard and Ravenburgh：2000).Further, the mainstay of both the national and international media is the global advertising industry.Advertising is the primary engine of growth of the mass media as well as the new digital media, including the telecommunications media.It drives the kind of content that thrives in the industry.Indeed, what the media does is to deliver audiences to advertisers even as they are delivering content to audiences.In most cases, content plays second fiddle to advertising.The stories the media tell are the stories that turn audiences to advertisements and the advertisements in their turn tell the story of consumption(Cf.Williamson：1978；Vestergaard and Schroder：1985；McFall：2004；Todd and Holden：2004).The stories are for the most part consumption-oriented.Reality TV shows, which dominate entertainment television in India, are consumption-oriented advertisements par excellence.They have the look of television programmes but that is a mere disguise.Reality TV shows invariably come hitched to sponsors and advertisers.Domestic reality shows are no more than clones of formats tried and tested in more affluent countries.Thus both programmes and advertising are replete with references to the nation and images of the nation.Indeed, they often transform nations into brands；some would argue that nations don’t create brands but it is brands that create nations, turning Benedict Anderson’s concept of‘imagined communities’(Anderson：1991)on its head.

Advertisers, especially those from the travel and tourism industry, like to transform nations into‘brands’in the same way they turn products, people and company names into easily memorable and recognizable brands.Thus,the‘India Shining’advertising campaign hyped images of India as an economic superpower, and the‘Incredible India’campaign promoted India as a tourist destination with images that projected the infinite variety of tourist spots and the cultural diversity of its peoples.These were believed to be‘national images’when in reality they were no more than deliberately selected and aesthetically constructed images by advertisers who wished to ‘selI’India as just another commodity or product.They were images that were simple, unambiguous and full of gloss, very much in the manner of advertising visuals.The rhetoric of images in advertising relates to hyperbole and metonymy.Hyped images are transformed into metaphors,symbols and icons that‘re-present’the whole nation.Thus, a happy middle class family in the‘India Shining’campaign is all of India’s families, urban and rural, rich and poor, sharing in the rapid economic development of the nation.That as many as a quarter of the population lives below the poverty line is quietly glossed over(India ranks 70 out of 104 in the World Prosperity Index but 66 out of 68 in the World Hunger Index) when such images are disseminated by international media across the world.

Two Global Advertising Campaigns

Two recent advertising campaigns, both totally financed and supported by the Government of India, have been widely discussed in the Indian mass media.The first was the‘India Shining’advertising campaign in 2004 launched by the then multi-party coalition in power, led by the Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP), the Indian Nationalist Party that was known to have leanings to the rightist Hindutva movement.The second is the ongoing‘Incredible India’campaign launched in 2002 by the Government of India’s Ministry of Tourism, but continued by the present ruling coalition led by the Indian National Congress(www.incredibleindia.org).The primary objective of both campaigns was to promote the‘national image’of India both within the country and overseas.But there were clear political objectives too, though the national image they projected had several similarities.

The‘India Shining’campaign was part of a Rs.650 million(US$ 13 million)Governmentfunded campaign to promote India internationally.The advertising agency selected for the campaign was Grey Worldwide(India), an affiliate of the global advertising agency.It was this agency’s national creative director, Prathap Suthan, who coined the slogan‘India Shining’to encapsulate India’s economic achievements during the BJP’s regime.Of course, as he himself admitted, he never dreamt that it would become a potent electoral weapon of the BJP (www.rediff.com, quoting AFP, 2 April 2004).‘Honestly,it was not meant to be political but it has turned into the hottest issue in India’, Suthan told AFP(ibid.).He was influenced by’tourism slogans’used by other countries, such as‘Rule Brittanica’, and‘Come Play in South Africa’.It was meant to be the theme for a sixty-second video to highlight steps taken by the BJP government to boost economic growth, slash interest rates, stabilize prices, expand road and health networks and offer free basic education(ibid.).It appears that Mr L.K.Advani, the BJP leader, provided the‘brief’to the agency；the brainwave for the‘feel good’campaign came from a Raymond textile advertisement(ibid.).That the whole campaign was deliberately ‘politicaI’was evident in the fact that it was launched just prior to the national elections of 2004, and that the slogan‘India Shining’was used extensively by the BJP during the election campaign.(Mr Advani was later to admit that the slogan was‘valid’but‘inappropriate’...we gave our political opponents an opportunity to highlight the other aspects of India’s reality...which questioned our claim(The Times of India, 29 May 2004：“India Shining Backfired：Advani”).

The‘India Shining’advertisements were aired 9,472 times on various television channels in December 2003 and January 2004；only the Government of India’s anti-polio campaign exceeded that figure(TAM).The national elections were held from April 20 to May 10, 2004 and the BJP took the two words of the slogan and turned them into the core theme of their election campaign.(The Election Commission stepped in and banned the broadcast of the slogan until the end of the elections, after the opposition Congress Party complained that the slogan had given the BJP an unfair image boost at the expense of the taxpayer).(www.wsws.org).‘The central myth of the campaign is that the path to economic progress is through market reform, that this growth will provide jobs and a better life for a growing larger population, and that the economic benefits will eventually trickle down to even the poorest layers of people’(Zora and Woreck：2004).

‘lncredible lndia’Campaigns

The Government of India’s Ministry of Tourism’s‘Incredible India’advertising campaign was launched in 2002 but has expanded over the years to encompass many countries and several media.It has been a multi-million dollar campaign in Europe, the Asia-Pacific, South Asia, the Middle-East and the United States.It has been funded by the Union Ministry of Tourism and also by the Experience India Society, an association of travel agents in India.

The print campaign has been created by Ogilvy and Mather(O& M), the television campaign by Enterprise Nexus and the Internet campaign by Grey Interactive (www.indiantelevision.com, 15 April 2003).The media account has been handled by WPP Group’s Maximize India.The focus of all the media campaigns has been on showcasing the fascinating diversity of Indian culture, the fauna and flora, landscapes, and architecture.It is no surprise that the Taj Mahal figures as a prominent image time and again in the campaign.The print ads have been inserted into publications like the Conde Naste Traveler, Geo, Vogue, the Financial Times and Tattler in Europe and the Asia Pacific, and in the New York Times for the United States(ibid.).The television commercials have been aired across the world on channels like the BBC, CNN, Discovery and Travel.Also, the Internet campaign has run on all major portals, blogs and search engines.From August 2007 to mid-2008, a Global Online Media Campaign was run in banners, and pop-ups on most major websites.

More recently, Incredible India launched a new campaign in October 2008 to coincide with the Formula One Grand Prix in Singapore(Campaign India：2008).Print and outdoor campaigns went live in early September, covering over 200 bus shelters, windows of Metro trains, Metro stations, facades of houses and postcard carts at key retail locations all over Singapore(ibid.).The theme was‘Discover Different Formulas for Racing in India’；this was illustrated with traditional Indian races such as boat-races of Kerala, bullock-cart races of Maharashtra, camel races and donkey races of Puskar, and the rural Olympics of the Punjab(ibid.).

In its latest venture, the Ministry of Tourism has teamed up with BBC World to create an ‘integrated marketing campaign’for a new series of Incredible India advertisements, but what the BBC terms‘advertiser-funded-programs’(or AFP’s)(Khandelwal：2008).Apparently, BBC research has suggested that‘vibrant colours is what many people associate with India’(ibid.), and therefore the theme of the new campaign comprising 30-second advertisements will be ‘colours’.This campaign is scheduled to be launched in November 2008.It will be telecast on BBC World News across Europe, Asia-Pacific,South Asia, the Middle East, Australia and the UK (ibid.).

India’s Top Advertising Agencies

续表

(Source：5^thPitch-Madison Survey, 2008)

Contemporary Media Scenario

The contemporary media scenario in India is marked by a frenetic proliferation of television channels, FM radio stations, daily newspapers, mobile telephony and digital media.The media and entertainment industry is currently worth Rs.512,600 million(approx.US$ 102,520 million)and is expanding at the CAGR(Compounded Annual Growth Rate) of 18％ per annum, according to the latest FICCI- Price Waterhouse Coopers Report(2008).It is projected to reach Rs.1.16 trillion by 2012(ibid.).The fastest growing media sectors are mobile telephony and television channels.Over three hundred million Indians now own their own mobile phone(on average nine million mobile phones are bought every month).120 million Indian households have access to television(including 70 million to cable and satellite TV, 7.5 million to Direct-to-Home TV, and about a million to IPTV), on average six satellite channels are launched every month.Cable and satellite television subscribers have access to around 300 channels(out of a total 440 channels)；most are in Hindi, Tamil and other Indian languages.

Further, more than 360 million Indians read daily newspapers and weekly news magazines.Nearly half of that population is from rural parts of the country where 75％ of the 1.1 billion strong population lives.According to the recent WAN(World Association of Newspapers)survey,India leads the world in the growth of both circulation and readership of newspapers.And with over 5300 daily newspapers and 56 around the clock television news channels available in India, the country has the potential of becoming the largest market in the world for both the print and television news business.In stark contrast, circulation and readership of newspapers in the United States and Europe is declining steadily.

Despite the global reputation of India being far ahead of most developing nations in information technology, the uptake of digital media like the Internet has been unimpressive compared with the growth of the traditional mass media.No more than 60 million Indians have regular access to the Internet, for instance.Access to the Internet is fairly widespread in the cities, though mainly via cyber-cafes,schools, colleges and offices；the cost of access at home is still unaffordable for most Indians.Home access to the net is limited to a small minority of the upper middle class in Tier 1 and Tier 2 cities.The situation in rural areas is far worse.Except for around five thousand e-choupals(Internet kiosks) and a few other community computer centres, rural India is ill-served.The largest segment of Internet users is in the 18-35 age group；this comprises half of all users.But only 66％ of these are‘active users’, that is, those who use the net at least once a month.Most are‘ever’users, those who access the net once in a while(The Marketing White Book：2007.pp.251-253).

This unprecedented growth of the traditional and the new media,like the rapid growth of the economy itself, has been at the expense of quality in‘content’and equity in distribution and access.

Advertising and the lndian Media

The spending on advertising is low in terms of GDP；the expenditure on ads to GDP ratio is a low 0.4, compared with a global average of 0.9(Sruthijit：2008, Campaign/Mint 6 October 2008, p.1)

Advertising Expenditure(2003-2008)

Success in the mainstream Indian media business is measured not so much by quality or impact as by circulation and readership figures, ratings, footfalls, hits, impressions and page views.All these modes of measurement relate to evaluating audience reception of‘content’for marketing managers and media planners.Audiences are neatly‘segmented’for the purpose of targeting those communities with the highest purchasing power.Most importantly though,media success is measured by the amount of advertising revenue earned.In 2006, advertising spends in India amounted to Rs.163 billion, growing at the rate of 33％ over the previous year(FICCI-PwC Report：2007).

For, it is advertising revenue that drives the form and substance of‘content’(For a history and critique of Indian advertising,see(Sengupta and Pashupati：1996；Kumar：2000；Chaudhari：2007).Certain kinds of content attract advertising much more than other kinds.After all, advertising needs a special kind of environment in which it is held to be persuasive and believable.An examination of the advertisements in each medium and each vehicle would suggest that premium(read high-priced) consumer products are advertised or sponsored in lifestyle content (music, fashion, travel and leisure) while mass consumer products(soaps, movies, sports) are advertised in content that appeals to the masses.This is particularly true of the English language press, which despite lower circulation than the Hindi or Tamil press, garners much of the advertising revenue.Media content, a public resource, is thus transformed into a‘commodity’that is delivered to advertisers to enable them to sell their wares.

Media Dependence on Advertising

The news media in India is, as in other democracies, vigorously supported by the advertising and public relations industries.The print media receive the most generous support.As much as 48％ of the total ad expenditure of Rs.168 billion goes to the press.Television earns around 41％ while radio, the internet, mobile telephony and out-of-home advertising fetch less than three percent each.Every news bulletin on every single news channel,including the public service Doordarshan, is heavily‘sponsored’by advertisers and is frequently interrupted for commercial breaks.The average number of advertisements aired on television in a week exceeds 260,000.The maximum number of advertisements aired was not on the general entertainment channels but on the news channels, with an average of 45,000 advertisements per week(The Marketing White Book：2007, p.229).However, the average television viewer watched no more than 313 advertisements per week(ibid.).

Media Share in AdSpend(2007)

(Source：5^thPitch-Madison Media Survey- 2008)

Besides, television news channels and news bulletins receive the biggest patronage where in-content(‘soft advertising’)is concerned.In 2006, for instance, the news bulletins obtained the highest‘secondage’(56.2 million), or 18％ share of total in-content advertising across all media genres,including feature films(16％),music shows(9％),soaps/drama(8％), and film songs (5％)(ibid.p.234).‘Secondage’refers to the number of seconds of in-content or‘soft’advertising in television programmes.

This total dependence of the media on revenues from above-the-line advertising(direct advertising in the mass media)and below-the-line advertising(in-product or‘soft’advertising, sponsorship, merchandising) obliges media to peddle certain kinds of content—content that attracts both types of advertising.More significantly, such dependence keeps out from the media the kind of content that disturbs, questions, critiques, and investigates.

ln Conclusion

The national image of India propagated worldwide by the Union Ministry of Tourism(whose share of total adspend in the travel and tourism sector is 26％,according to Adex-India(2007))is trite and hackneyed.It is an assemblage of exoticised images,and perpetuates an‘Orientalism’(Said：1978)that is at the heart of the approach of colonial literature and media.The Ministry provides a rather simplified flat and one-dimensional image of a diverse land and a diverse people, though the nation’s diversity and pluralism is the ostensible theme of its advertising campaigns.

The fantasy world of advertising has nothing to do with the stark reality that is India.Reality is anathema in advertising discourse.The messages of advertising are targeted at those with purchasing power and aspirations to consume often beyond their means.News stories of reality alienate the consumer targeted by the advertiser.News media, therefore, plays it safe by glossing over social and economic issues that affect the majority of India’s millions.It is noteworthy that the 56 news channels available in India attract the maximum ad volumes in travel and tourism；as high as 37％ of the total ad volumes in travel and tourism goes to news channels(AdexIndia：2007).

In their attempts to celebrate an India that is‘shining’and‘incredible’, the advertising campaigns conjure up a world that serves the interests of the advertising and marketing industries but distorts the complex realities of the sub-continent.It is a one-dimensional world that misleads and misinforms, and a world that is contradicted on a daily basis by the national and international news media, as also by the diversity of images purveyed in the entertainment media, and in the ‘new media’,such as blogs, social networks, and video-sharing sites such as www.youtube.com, and the many Indian image/video-sharing sites such as www.aapkavideo.com.The clash of images between those projected by advertising(especially tourism advertising) on the one hand, and the news media on the other often results in confused impressions of distant countries and their peoples and cultures.Tourists to India come with raised expectations but their personal experience tells them a very different story.The credibility of tourism advertising is challenged by the screaming headlines of the news media which suggest that everything is wrong with the country, that corruption is rampant, women tourists are unsafe and that the basic infrastructure is in shambles even in the highly urbanized metros.

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〔Keval J·KUMAR,Adjunct Faculty, International School of Business and Media,India.〕