英语句法特征补述
传统语法较系统地描述了英语句法结构的特征,使英语外族人靠学习能听、说、读、写英语;但由于传统语法的局限性,有不少特征没有被揭示出来,这又使学了多年英语的外族人仍不知道某些句子结构的正误。最近,笔者给26位英语专业的硕士研究生以及20位英语专业硕士研究生学位班的学员(高校英语教师)出了一道题,要求他们指出下列结构的正误(标有星号的结构不合语法,下文同):
①I wonder which book John told the students that they should read.
*②This is the man that John made the claim that he will invite.
*③Nixon regrets that never before have prices been so high.
*④I forced the children all to leave.
⑤I wanted the children al l to leave.
⑥Who did you get involved in the debate about?
*⑦What did you get involved in the debate about?
⑧Who bought what?
*⑨Who left why?
句①到句⑨做错(即,认正为误或认误为正)的研究生与学位班学员人数分别是15/15,11/12,24/17,20/13,16/16,16/16,14/17,10/9,23/18。
许多语言学者(Halliday et al.,1964;Lehman,W.,1976;Brown H.1994 Towell R.and R.Hawkins 1994等等指出,成人学习外语不同于儿童习得语言,对语法规则与语言知识的学习、掌握非常重要,“必须彻底地懂那种语言的语法”[10]。但我们英语学习者“采用的语法经常是粗略的”(ibid)。如今,现代语言学理论“发现了许多过去没有注意到的、没有探讨过的语言特征,包括有些很基本的特征。”(Chomsky,1982)这里,笔者从传统语法的角度综述了几个方面,以便习惯于传统语法的英语学习者理解与掌握。为避免重复,以往已见于学术刊物的有关句法特征一般没有再述,极少涉及也是为了上述目的而改变了角度。(下列例句摘自[1]、[4]、[5]、[6]、[7]、[8]、[9]、[12]、[13]、[15]、[16]、[17]、[18]等。)
1.照应词(反身代词与相互代词)的应用
已有人在学术刊物上载文论述了一般语法书上未涉及的应用规则。另外,再增加几点:
1)传统语法中讲到了话语中反身代词没有明显先行词的情况([14]:359-360;章振邦,1997:310)。但它没有强调说明:这样的反身代词通常是第一人称或第二人称,即话语中的讲话者或听话者;单个这样的反身代词一般不作动词的主目(主语或宾语);这时的话语不能侮辱听话者。例如:
*⑩People like yourself disgust me!
People like you disgust me!
2)如果含有照应词的介词短语所修饰的名词有自己的逻辑主语(如名词的属格或物主代词),则照应词与该逻辑主语同指。例如:
Poirot believes Miss Marple’s description of herself/*himself.
*The students believe Miss Marple’s description of each other.
Miss Marple believes the students’description of each other.
They told stories about each other./*They told my stories about each other.
3)宾语分句的主语不能是与主句主语同指的照应词,但当它们与介词结合修饰名词时,介词后用与主句主语同指的照应词则可以被接受。例如:
*The models insisted that themselves be given to all the magazines.
The models insisted that the descriptions of themselves be given to all the magazines.
但如果作分句主语的名词有自己的逻辑主语,则介词后的照应词只能与这逻辑主语同指,不能与主句的主语同指。例如:
I expected that a picture of myself would be on show.I expected that Mary’s picture of herself/*myself would be on show.
4)宾语分句中的反身代词可能同指主句中作为话语参加者的名词,但不能指非话语参与者。如:
Mary said to John that physicists like himself/herself were a godsend.
*Mary said about John that physicists like himself were a godsend.
5)在“名词+形容词+其他”小句中的反身代词需与小句中的名词同指,如,John considers Mary fond of herself/*himself.但这受到语义的制约,即如果该形容词的意义使其两个主目不能同指时(如,*John is inferior to himself.),则形容词后的反身代词可与上一分句的主语同指,如,John considers Mary inferior to himself.
6图像名词picture-noun如picture story portrait等等)词组中的反身代词的所指对象可以出现在反身代词之后。如:
Funny stories about himsel f won’t restore Tom to good humor.
The picture of himsel f that hangs in Nixon’s study is quite dignified looking.(Nixon仍在世)
但这受语用的制约,即反身代词的所指对象须能感觉到该图像,否则句子不合格。如:
*Funny stories about himsel f won’t restore Tom to life.
*The picture of himsel f that hangs in Lincoln’s study is quite dignified looking.(Lincoln已去世)
2.wh-问句
1)对介词宾语的提问。传统语法谈到了对介词宾语提问的几种情况([14]:817-818,822)。我们要补述的是,当介词短语作名词的修饰语且该名词词组作动词的宾语时,可对介词的宾语提问。如:Which car did you damage the hood of?但当该名词有自己的逻辑主语(如名词的属格)或of介词短语与被修饰的名词具有“由……做”的语义关系时则不行。如:
Whati did Bill give a lecture on ti?
*Whati did Bill hear Sally’s lecture on ti?
*Whati did she make a dress of ti?(a dress made of...)
另外,下列情况也不宜对介词宾语提问。
(1)当上述名词词组不是作动词的宾语,而是作介词的宾语或作句子的主语或作补足语的逻辑主语时。如:
*Whati did you talk about the lecture on ti?/*Which cari was the hood of ti damaged?
*Which treei did you see the leaves of ti turn color?
但当该名词词组作介词动词的宾语且wh-词表示人的意义时,也可对介词的宾语提问,“非人”意义时则不宜。例见本文开首的⑥、⑦。
(2)在explain sth.to sb.与confess sth.to sb.中,可对介词to的宾语提问;如果explain与confess的直接宾语是that-分句或宾语过长、过复杂,to sb.会置于直接宾语之前,这时不能对介词to的宾语提问。如:
Whoi did you explain it to ti?/*Who,did you explain to it that money doesn’t grow on trees?
(3)动词give带宾语的结构是,give sb.sth.,give sth.to sb.,give to sb.sth.([14]:1396)。其中第三种情况的介词to的宾语不能被提问。如:
Whoi did John give the gold ring to ti?/*Whoi did John give to ti the gold ring?
2)对作宾补的形容词提问。如:
John considered Mary intelligent./John tinted my hair blond./John drank the milk fresh./John ate the meat raw.
以上四句陈述句中,能用how对前两句作宾补的形容词提问,后两句则不行。如:
′How intelligent did John consider Mary?/How blond did John tint your hair?/*How fresh did John drink the milk?/*How raw did John eat meat?
这里的解释是,当动词的宾语与形容词构成小句(如,consider/make/believe+NP+Adj.结构中的“NP+Adj.”)时,该结构中的形容词能用how提问;或者当作宾补的形容词表示动作的结果时,也可用how对形容词提问,如中的第二例。但当作宾补的形容词表示描写意义(depictive)时,则不能用how提问,如中的后两例。
有的作宾补的形容词的意义也是表示动作的结果但却不能用how提问,因为在实际生活中这些形容词通常不能表示出程度的差别,这不是“通常意义”的表达,如:
How hard did you boil the eggs?/*How red did you boil the lobster?在实际生活中,煮蛋有嫩、老程度的差别,而煮龙虾(到可食为止)却没有红到什么程度的差别。
有的也是“V.+NP+Adj.”结构,却不能用how对形容词提问,因为这时形容词表示伴随意义(circumstance),说明主语的状况。如:
John ate the meat angry./*How angry did John eat the meat?
3)对限定从属分句中成分的提问。
(1)我们知道,能对that-宾语分句中动词的宾语、补语或状语提问,但这时分句前的限定动词须是think,believe,say等通行动词(bridge verb),如果是regret,murmur,grumble等“nonbridge”动词,则不能这样提问。如:
Whoi did you think that Tom hit ti?/*Whoi did you murmur that Tom hit ti?
(2)对wh-词引导的宾语分句中的成分不能提问,试比较:
Whoi do you wonder(that)Mary saw ti?/*Who do you wonder whether Mary saw ti?
(3)对关系分句、同位语分句以及状语分句中的成分不能提问。如:
* Whoi did John meet a girl who loves ti?
* Whoi did John believe the claim that Mary loves ti?
* Whoi did Mary leave after Bill saw ti?
但当同位语分句前的“V+N”的意义等于或相当于单一动词时则提问分句中的宾语能被大多数本族人接受如:
Which booki did John hear a rumor that you had read ti?(hear a rumor近似hear)
Which cari did John make the claim that Bill had stolen ti?(make the claim近似claim)
4)对wh-词使用的限制。
(1)why与how能与介词词组同时前置构成问句,who/what/when/where则不能。如:
Whyi in 1960j did you come to the United States ti tj?
* Whoi in Harvard Squarej did you see ti tj?
(2)在具体的语境中,why能与副词词组(so,not,yesterday等)、名词词组以及介词词组等连用单独成问句,表达一定的意义,其他wh-词则不能,如:Why so?/Why a duck?/Why in Boston?/*Where so?
(3)why/how与问句的其余部分间可以有插入语,其他wh-词则不能。如:
Why,man,did you come to the United States?
* When,man,did you come to the United States?
但当who/what引导的是不需对方回答的修饰性问句时,则问句成立。如:
Who,man,doesn’t know that?(=Everybody knows that.)
What kind of girl,man,do you think she is?(=She is such a kind of girl.)
5)对双重wh-词的使用。
when与where能与who/what/which双重使用,甚至三重使用,why与how则不行。如:
What did you find where/when?/*What did you find why how
Who died when?/*Who died how?
Who remembers what we bought for what reason/in what manner?
* Who remembers what we bought why/how?
6)疑问词与代词的指代关系。
一般情况下,当名、代词同指某一(些)人时,则名词在前,代词在后,如I talked about John to his father.这里的his可与John同指;但如果是I talked to his father about John,则his和John不能同指。这种关系在问句中同样存在,如:Whoi did you talk about ti to hisi father?/*Whoi did you talk to hisi father about ti?前一例中的his能与who同指,后一例则不行。
3.关系分句
1)如果关系分句中有宾语分句、状语分句、同位语分句或另一关系分句,其关系代词在分句中所起的作用是,能作宾语分句中动词或介词的宾语,但通常不能作其他分句中的某一成分。如:
This is something whichi you are aware of it that Mary has done ti.
This is the problem thati I didn’t know if you were interested in ti.
* This is the problem thati I will ask Mary if I cannot solve ti.
* This is the girl whoi John visited a man who hates ti.
2)关系代词与接应人称代词(resumptive pronoun)的并存。在非正式英语中,这两者可以并存,如,the man/(who)I saw him能被英语本族人接受。尤其当关系代词作某些wh-分句中的宾语成分时,接应人称代词必须保留,如,the man whoi they think that when Mary marries himi then everyone will be happy/*the man whoi they think that when Mary marries ti then everyone will be happy。
3)非对称(asymmetric)“and”在关系分句中的应用。如:
These are the shirts(thati)I ran to Broadstreet and picked up ti.
That’s the dress(thati)she came and ruined ti.
That’s the lake(thati)he went and jumped in ti.
这种句子成立的条件是:(1)“and”前的动作直接导致“and”后的结果;(2)“and”前的动词通常是go,come及run;(3)“and”前后两动词的时态形式一致,否则错误。如:
* That’s the lake(thati)she jumped in ti and went.
* That’s the dress(thati)she came and will ruin ti.
4)在分句中作宾语的关系代词可以省略,但该关系代词与分句的其余部分之间插有评注性状语时,则不能省略。如:
the man whoi,unfortunately,nobody likes ti/*the man( ),unfortunately,nobody likes
the man whoi in fact everybody hates ti/*the man( )in fact everybody hates
5)关系代词which/whom前根据需要可以有一介词,或介词置后。但当这一介词是关系分句中作状语的某一词组的补足成分时,介词只能置后。如:
It is the diving board which John stood motionless at the end of/*of which John stood motionless at the end.
4.主题性前置
指陈述句中不引起倒装的某一成分提前至句首,使它成为主题(theme)。
1)从属分句中某一成分的前置。对此,语法书中(如,[14]:1377-1379;章振邦,1997:1565-1568)已有阐述,但都是简单句中某一成分的前置这里谈的是复合句的从属分句中某一成分的主题性前置现象。
(1)宾语分句。that-宾语分句中的名词词组(作宾语或补语)、介词词组、动词词组(不含助动词)、副词词组等可以前置;如果that词省略,作主语的名词词组也可前置。如:
That kind of thingi I don’t like(that)I’d ever do ti.
With Maryi Bill thinks(that)John went to the movies ti.
Playing tennisi I know(that)he is ti.
Tomorrowi I believe(that)he is leaving ti./Jeffreyi I know ti did it.
that-宾语分句前的限定动词是believe,consider,find,know,hear,learn,like,think等“assertive”动词;如果是“nonassertive”动词(如regret),则不宜这样前置。如:
* Maryi Bill regrets that everyone dislikes ti.
* With Maryi Bill regrets that John committed a crime ti.
如果是wh-词引导的宾语分句,不能这样前置。如:
* Playing tennisi I don’t know where/whether he is ti.
* Tomorrowi I don’t know whether/how he is leaving ti.
(2)主语分句、关系分句、同位语分句、状语分句。这些分句中的成分不能前置。如:
* Johni that Mary likes ti is obvious./*That kind of thingi I know a man who does ti.
* Jefferyi I heard Bill repeat the rumor that Marget married ti.
* Tomi Mary left after Susan saw ti.
但也有例外,如,Beansi I don’t think I’d ever date a man who eats ti.([13]:444)
(3)for...to...不定式分句。for后的名词词组不能前置,但不定式的宾语可以前置;如果“for...to...”作主语,则不定式的宾语也不能前置如:
* Billi you wanted very much for ti to leave./Susani you wanted very much for Bill to leave ti.
* Susani for Bill to leave ti would upset you.
2)简单句中其他一些前置现象。
(1)作句状语的介词词组(sentential pp)可前置于wh-词前,作词组动词状语的介词词组(verb-phrasal pp)则不宜。如:
In John’s office who is an absolute dictator?/*In John’s office who placed a new brass bed?
According to Felix,who won the race?/*In front of Felix,who holds a candle?
(2)传统语法中谈到介词的宾语也能前置。这里要补充的是,如果该介词词组所修饰的名词有自己的逻辑主语(如,名词属格)时,则不能前置。如:
Jeffreyi I’ll buy photographs of ti./*Jeffreyi I’ll buy Sue’s photographs of ti.
5.“动词+宾语+不定式(宾补)”结构
这些动词根据特征可分成两类:一是believe类动词,它们有believe,consider,declare,expect,report,want等;另一类是persuade类动词,它们有advise,encourage,force,order,tell,persuade,promise等。believe类动词后的宾语与不定式构成一个小句(small clause),而persuade类动词后仅不定式构成一个小句,它们的结构形式是:believe[SC],persuade NP[SC]。从中可见,believe类动词后跟的是一个命题,而不是某(些)人或某(些)物,而persuade类动词后跟的是某(些)人与一个命题。因此,它们表现出不同的特征。
1)believe类动词的宾语后不能用与句子主语同指的反身代词而persuade类动词后则可如:
* I believe Mary myself to be a good doctor./I persuaded Mary myself to become a doctor.
其不定式后的反身代词都是与宾语同指,只有promise例外(与主语同指)。如:
I expects Mary to win herself/*myself./I persuaded Mary to win herself/*myself.
I promised Mary to win myself/*herself.
2)believe类动词后可跟“非人称代词it+不定式”结构,而persuade类动词不可。如:
I want it to rain./*I encouraged it to rain.
3)believe类动词后可跟“there+to be”结构,persuade类动词不可。如:
I expected there to be a party./*I ordered there to be a party.
4)不定式变为被动态后,believe类动词并不因为其后不定式的主、被转换而改变句义,而persuade类动词则改变了句义。如:
I wanted the doctor to examine Mary.=I wanted Mary to be examined by the doctor.
I told the doctor to examine Mary.≠I told Mary to be examined by the doctor.
5)我们知道,限定量词(quantifier)“all”可置于用作主语的名词后,不能置于用作宾语的名词后。如:The boys all left./*I saw the boys all.(须是I saw all the boys.)因此,believe类动词的名词后可跟all,因为这名词作小句中的主语;而persuade类动词的名词后则不行,因为该名词是动词的宾语,不是小句的主语。例见本文开首的④和⑤
6.“have a”结构
“have a+由动词转化而成的名词”词组常用的有几十个,如have a walk,have a roll,have a lie-down等。这种结构的特征除人们通常知道的外,还有:
1)其主语总是表示“人”语义的名词词组,主语“非人”不正确。如:
The child had a roll down the grassy bank.
* The stone had a roll down the grassy bank.(须改成:The stone rolled down the grassy bank.)
2)其后不跟“到某一地点”、“达一目的”、“到某一时刻”或“经过一段具体时间”的状语。如:
* I had a walk to the garden./*He had a swim across the river.
* She had a run around the playground until the rain began.
* We had a look at the picture for 10 minutes.
3)这种结构表示主语自愿、乐意或为达到某一“舒适”、“娱乐”等积极效果而做事。所以,(1)有have a sit-down等说法,除特殊语境外,一般不会有have a stand-up的说法;(2)此结构中的名词前可以用褒义形容词修饰,而不大可能用贬义形容词,如have a delightful talk,have an interesting dream,等等;(3)have a run,have a swim等是为了消遣、娱乐、锻炼等目的,即使是have a cry也是表示经历者有哭过一阵后会感到轻松的感觉,不要因悲伤而忍住哭泣。
4)这种结构通常用在口语中,所以“have a”后通常是口语性词语,有have a pee,have a think等表达,没有have a urinate,have a contemplate等表达。
7.其他方面
1)主语的形式。介词词组,尤其是表示时间与地点意义的介词词组作主语被英语本族人普遍接受。此外,形容词、副词以及不带to的不定式作主语也被许多英语本族人接受。如:
Into the house is where she ran./Pretty is how she looks.
Quickly is how she did it./Run into trouble is what she did.
2)倒装结构。倒装结构一般不用于从属分句。如:
Not a bite did he eat./*Mary says that not a bite did she eat.
In came the milkman./*John thinks that in came the milkman.
Squatting in the corner was a spotted tree frog./*I never enter the room when squatting in the corner is a spotted tree frog.
3)“This novel sells well”结构。语法书中列出了几十个可以用在这结构中的动词。有的书上说,它们是不及物动词的主动形式,但表示了被动的意义。其实,这些动词的这种用法表示了作主语的物体(具体或抽象)的特性(nature)、质量(quality)、状态(state)、情势(situation)等,并不指动作,如:The book reads easily.(特性)/The cloth washes well.(质量)/The door won’t lock.(状态)/That drama will play.(情势)
这种结构有三个明显的特征:(1)主语是表示物体的名词词组(包括代词);(2)伴有副词或助动词,或两者兼备(如:My voice doesn’t carry well.),不可能没有这两者;(3)动词的形式多数是一般现在时几乎没有进行体不可能有完成体。
8.结束语
《外语教学与研究》1998年第4期中刊登了一篇“中国学生对英语关系从句的习得”的文章,文中说,经测试,中国学生(指大学生)较易识别类似“The man who(m)she admires him is an artist”关系从句中的错误(误用了代词him),不会识别类似“This is the land which the manager questioned the decision that we should sell”关系从句中的错误(关系代词不作同位语分句中的成分),并分析说,中国学生不能识别后一类关系从句中的错误是因为中国学生一方面受母语干扰,另一方面是错误分析语料而误用生成策略所致。那么,同是关系从句,为什么受到母语干扰的只是后一句而不是前一句呢?为什么错误分析后一句而不是前一句呢?其实这是传统语法的局限所致:从过去到现在的语法书中从不阐述关系从句中含有的同位语分句中的成分能否由关系代词充当的问题,教学中也从不谈及。汉语与英语的句法结构在多方面不一致。学习英语的人“特别要懂得该种语言的语法和学习者本族语语法的差别。……对学习中的困难进行仔细的讨论。”[10]到了大学阶段的英语学习者,尤其是大学高年级的学习者普遍已掌握了基础英语语法。对于这样的学生,英语语法教学应更上一层,应“仔细讨论”。80年代末至90年代在北京师范大学与北京外国语大学任英语教学的学者Martin Wedell(1996)说“在高层次教授语法应在已有语法知识的基础上进行。……教授更复杂的句子的构成,……涉及更复杂的句型及其表达的意义。”笔者希望本文能为高层次英语学习者进一步理解英语句法结构起些作用。
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