英语段落写作的标准参照

二、英语段落写作的标准参照

学习英语段落写作，仅了解段落的构成要素是不够的，还需了解如何界定一个段落的好否，即段落写作的标准参照。如果不明确一个段落的好否与参照，那么，写作者的写作只能是盲目的。只有了解了评价段落的好否与参照标准，写作者才能看到写作中的不足，才知道如何去修改。

英语段落写作的标准有三个：Unity、连贯和句式多样化，也就是说，一个段落只要满足了这三个标准，就可以称得上是一个好的段落了。在这三个标准中，句式多样化标准可参照语句写作中的句式多样化标准，句式多样化既是语句写作的标准，又是段落写作的标准。因此，我们这里只对Unity和连贯两个标准进行介绍。

（一）Unity

Unity是段落写作的首要标准。这个标准为什么要采用英语术语呢？主要有两点考虑，首先，我们探讨的对象是英语写作。段落标准Unity是来自于英语写作的专业文献著作，因此，Unity出现在这里并不显得太陌生和诧异。而更重要的原因则是Unity作为段落写作的标准，其表意已相当准确到位，再加之作者拙于找到一个很恰当的中文对等词传达其意，因此，由于主观的不想和客观的不能，这时就借用了Unity一词来探讨段落写作的标准。

Unity，作为段落写作的首要标准，主要有两层意思，一是统一性，二是完整性，如图6-3所示。

图6-3　段落标准

统一性。Unity具有统一的意思。统一性指的是一个段落要表达出一个相对独立的主要思想（Main idea），这也说明一个段落不能出现两个或两个以上的多个主要思想，并且整个段落的所有语句都得围绕和指向这一主要思想。这样的段落才具备统一性。

段落的统一性要求一个段落必须具备一个主要思想或主题任务。一个段落不能表达出一个主要思想，或没有一个主题任务，何谈段落的统一，更谈不上是一个好的段落。同时，统一性还要求一个段落中所有语句都得围绕和指向该段落的主要思想或主题任务，换言之，段落的所有语句都与段落的主要思想的表达或主题任务的完成有着密切的联系，因此，如果一个段落虽然具备了主要思想或履行了主题任务，但段落中存在着一些与主要思想或主题任务关系松散，甚至毫无关系的语句，也谈不上具备了统一性。

语例：

In preparation for sovereignty,many functions of government have already been transferred. Twelve government ministries are currently under the direct control of Iraqis. The Ministry of Education,for example,is out of the propaganda business,and is now concerned with educating Iraqi children. Under the direction of Dr. Aladinal-Alwan,the Ministry has trained more than 30 000 teachers and supervisors for the schools of a new Iraq.

在上述段落中，每一个语句都是密切围绕主题preparation for sovereignty的。

可见，写作者为了达到段落写作的统一性，首先要明确该段落的主要思想或主题任务，然后，要让段落中的所有语句都得围绕和指向主要思想或主题任务展开，避免与主题思想或主题任务无关和关联甚少的语句出现在段落中。

完整性。完整性是Unity标准的第二层意思。完整性一方面指的是段落思想内容表达或主题任务履行的完整，另一面指的是段落结构形式上的完整。

在段落的完整性方面，理论上，段落内容的完整与结构形式的完整二者都十分重要，然而，相对而言，在段落内容，即主要思想或主题任务角色与结构形式之间，由于文本写作的形式是服务于文本的内容的，因此，段落的结构形式的完整常常是服务或从属于段落内容的完整的。也就是说，通常情况下，一个段落应具备一个完整的主要思想内容的表达或一个主题任务角色的完整圆满地完成，除此之外，还需要具备一个完整的结构形式，如引入、展开、小结等几个大的功能结构部分。

但是，在内容和形式的完整性之间，如果写作者已在内容上给出了一个完整的交代后，就没必要硬性地或勉强地在结构形式上考虑完整了。例如一个过渡段的角色任务就是过渡，仅仅是建立一个前后段间的衔接和联系，也就没必要一定要写足引入、展开、小结三个部分。同样，在一个文本的主体展开段中，如果写作者已经清楚完整地对其主要思想进行了交代或圆满履行了该段的角色任务，这时，也就没必要非要在后面加上一个小结了。否则，往往还会有画蛇添足之虞。

（二）连贯

连贯是段落写作的另一个十分重要的标准参照。连贯主要针对的是如何更加有效地将段落里面各个语句和一系列的思想组织起来的问题。换言之，在一个段落里，即使一个段落的每一个语句都是围绕和指向段落的主要思想，而如果没有将它们很好地组织在一起，这个段落很难成为一个好的段落，更严重者，这个段落甚至会糟糕到根本无法让人读懂其意。

语例：

Though this picture only describes a runner who is going to start a new run after reaching the finishing line,yet it demonstrates a universal law that governs the development of mankind. In other words,if we want to make constant progress we must keep forging ahead instead of resting on laurels. Robertson once said,“Whenever he is satisfied with what he does,he has reached his culminating point—he will progress no more.”

这是一个由仅仅三句话组成的简单段落，段落意思表达清楚。但是，就这样一个简单的段落，一旦失去了连贯，如语句顺序打乱，连贯词语去掉，这个段落就很难读懂了，如下所示：

Robertson once said,“Wheneverhe is satisfied with what he does,he has reached hisculminating point—he will progress no more. yetit demonstrates a universal law thatgoverns the development of mankind. Though thispicture only describes a runner whois going to start a new run after reaching the finishing line,if we want to make constant progress wemust keep forging ahead. In other words,instead of resting on laurels.

显然，段落的连贯对于一个好的段落来说也是十分重要的。事实上，段落的Unity与段落的连贯两个标准对于一个段落质量的好否而言是相辅相成的。段落只具备了Unity而无连贯，轻则使段落晦涩难懂，重则让人根本无法读懂，而另一方面，一个段落连Unity都不具备，各个语句之间风马牛不相及，更无从谈将它们连贯在一起了，这时，即使勉强地将它们连贯在一起也毫无意义了。

连贯之于一个段落，就好比一个女孩拥有了一系列的各式服装穿戴之后，还需寻求一个恰当的方式将它们良好地搭配起来。搭配不当或不协调，就有可能穿戴起来不伦不类。写作中的连贯就类似于穿衣戴帽这样的搭配问题。好的衣饰加上好的搭配，自然就完美了。写文章也是同样道理。

写作是一件要求严密的事情。一个段落、一个语句或一个整篇文本都分别是一个严密的体系，或者说是一个严密的有机体。它们内在的各个部分的构成都不是随意的，杂乱无章的。语句不是词汇的简单堆砌，整篇文本不是段落的简单堆砌，同样，一个段落也决然不是语句的简单堆砌。在段落写作中，要让一个段落成为一个严密的有机体，写作者所要做的除了要让段落满足Unity条件之外，再就是连贯的事情了。

连贯是什么，连贯就是将段落中各个语句严密地维系在一起，并且让语句与语句之间的过渡流畅，自然，最终让整个段落成为一个严密的有机体，充分地表达出该段落的主要思想或充分地履行其角色任务。

段落连贯的方法可从两个方面着手：段落内在的语义（内容）连贯；段落中各语句间的结构（形式）连贯。

1．段落语义连贯

段落内容——段落所要表达的思想内容是写作的灵魂。因此，段落的连贯首先是段落的语义连贯，就是写作时要让段落里面的各个语句表达的意思具有严密的逻辑顺序性，具备了严密的逻辑顺序性的文本才更符合人的认知心理规律。这样，读者才能更好地理解整个段落所要表达的意思。段落的语义连贯一般采用以下几种具体方法：

（1）时间关联。当写作者所要表达的内容涉及时间的先后时，如记叙中的先后发生的事情、说明中的先后操作步骤、议论中所举例子的先后等，应按照一定的时间顺序进行表达，以避免先后次序上的混乱。

当然，时间顺序可以有顺时顺序和逆时顺序，写作者可根据需要选择一种。

另外，在写作中，英语语言有一个不同于汉语习惯的特殊之处，那就是英语中的动词本身具有时态变化的特性，动词的时态变化反映句中事件和行为发生的时间，因此，英语语句动词的时态变化直接影响着语义表达的时间顺序。动词时态的疏忽误用就会影响段落的连贯。写作者应在写作中仔细留意语句的动词时态问题，注意写作中有关连贯性问题。有时，一段简单的话语也会因时态混乱导致的时序问题而让人无法读懂。

（2）空间关联。当写作者所表达的内容涉及空间位置时，例如描写对象的空间位置，记叙事件发生的空间场景转换，议论举例中的空间场所有别时，应按照一定的空间顺序进行表达。空间顺序有由近及远、由远及近、由里及外、由外及里、由左及右、由前及后等等。

（3）逻辑关联。语义表达的逻辑性顺序主要有以下几种：归纳、演绎、主次或重要性顺序关联、从属、同属、因果、转折、对比、同一和相似等。

演绎顺序就是在写作中预先表达出一个总的基本的观点和思想，然后列举一些具体的事实和例子进行支撑，这种方法在议论、描写、记叙、说明中都可采用。

归纳则与演绎刚好相反，是预先进行一些事例的列举、描写等，然后进行一个总结性的表意。

主次或重要性顺序。重要性顺序是指写作中按事情或事例的重要性把思想内容表达出来。重要性顺序表达可以采用从最重要的、最引人兴趣的、最严重的到次重要、次引人兴趣、次严重的，到最不重要、最不引人兴趣、最不严重的顺序，也可以按相反顺序，即从最不重要的到最重要的进行表达。

重要性顺序的两种相反方式各有其特点，首先，从最重要的内容进行表达可以给人先入为主的说服力和感染力，给人以直接的影响力；而从最不重要的内容开始表达，然后逐步到最重要内容的表达，这样可以给人以由浅入深、层层深入的影响力和感染力。因此，二者各有其长，写作者应根据文本特点、个人习惯取向等来采用重要性顺序表达方式。但在写作中要避免不分轻重缓急，平铺直叙，甚至是杂乱无章的表达方式。

另外，还有从属、同属、因果、转折、对比、同一和相似等方法都可以帮助达到段落写作语义表达上的连贯。

2．段落结构（形式）连贯

写作的至上原则是形神合一。因此，段落写作注意了语义的连贯之后，尚需讲求结构（形式）上的连贯。形式连贯就是在文本中运用一些具体的语词手段来让一个段落中的语句达到段落的诸如时空或语义逻辑上的连贯。

英语写作中，常有以下让段落内语句保持形式连贯的方法：

1）运用转承或过渡关联词

运用转承或过渡关联词是人们在写作中最基本常用的保持文本连贯的手段。正如前面的段落语义连贯中我们所看到的，段落在表达其段落主题思想中，段落中的各个语句之间具有时间、空间、逻辑等不同形式的语义关联。为了使这些语句间的不同形式的语义关联通过文本形式反映出来，人们常借助于转承或过渡关联词。换言之，转承或过渡关联词的运用就是文本写作中用有形的连贯将无形的语义串联起来并形式化地固化出来。这样，就达到了文本的形式和内容的统一。

与英语段落的语义连贯一致，英语中的转承或过渡关联词也要有相应几个类别：

（1）时间转承或过渡关联词

使用维持语义时间连贯的连接、转换的词汇和术语，可使表达的内容具有时间上的连贯性，如first,second,etc,soon,later,eventually,then,at the same time,at last,after,a moment later,just at the time,when,while…next,after,before,later,soon,during,while,meanwhile,following,shortly,thereafter,the next day,finally,next,last,at last,after an interval,above all,first of all，after a while,afterward,again,also,and then，as long as，at last，at length，at that time,before,thereup,thereafter,now,earlier，eventually， finally，formerly further，furthermore， in addition，in the first place， in the past，last， lately，meanwhile，moreove，next，now，presently，second，shortly，simultaneously，since，so far，soon，still，subsequently，then，until，when,as等。

（2）空间转承或过渡关联词

使用维持语义空间连贯的连接、转换的词汇和术语，可使表达的内容具有空间上的连贯，如in the front,before,behind ,on the left,across from,on the right/left above,below,around，over,inside,to the left/right,behind,beyond,in the center,straight ahead,next to,on the side of,at the top,opposite to,below,under,at the front,around,near,across from,close to,beneath,nearby,on the top of,up,adjacent to,further,below,in front of,beyond,down,under,in the distance,near to,here,there,far,farther,in the distance,beneath,over,opposite to等。

（3）其他逻辑转承或过渡关联词

使用维持语义逻辑连贯的转换的词汇和术语，可使表达的内容具有语义逻辑上的连贯。根据文本的不同逻辑语义而使用不同的过渡关联词语。下面是一些常见语义逻辑关联词语。

表示程度或递进：

the most…,the last but not the least,moreover,furthermore,not to mention,nothing to say,in addition to,first,firstly,to begin with，second,secondly,to start with，third,thirdly,what’s more，also,and then，and equally important，besides,in addition，further in the first place，still,furthermore,next,too,moreover，finally 等。

表示比较或对比：

on the one hand ,on the other hand,in contrast to,different from,opposite to ,likewise,similarly,in the same way,like，in comparison，equally，however，likewise，in the same way，another,furthermore,moreover,equally important,too,also,at the same time,besides,in addition to,just as,in the same way,by comparison,likewise,similarly,on the contrary,different from,in contrast,on the other,yet,but,despite,in spite of,whereas,the former…the latter,on the one hand…on the other hand,unlike等。

表示演绎或归纳：

for example,for instance,take…as on example,that is to say,in an other words,in conclusion，for example,for instance,to illustrate. for example for instance,to illustrate as an illustration，after all，as a matter of fact，frankly speaking，in fact,that is,that’s to say,in this case,namely,in other words,to put it differently等。

另外还有表示并列、转折、因果、顺序、假设、让步等逻辑语义的关联词：

and,though,but ,but,however,conversely,in spite of,nevertheless,even though,on the other hand,after all,still,on the contrary,yet,whereas,however,nevertheless,because,therefore so,because,for,as,since,owing to,if…then,the former,the latter,first,second…，the conclusion that,in short，but,in contrast,nevertheless,notwithstanding,on the contrary,on the other hand otherwise,regardless,still,though,yet,despite the fact,even though,however,in spite of,instead，still nevertheless，in spite of all the same，even so，after all，concession granted naturally，of course等。

（4）评注性关联词语

评注性关联词语如to put it concisely,in my opinion,personally,to be sure,even more important,what’s more important,in short,in summary,in conclusion,to sum up,therefore,in brief,to conclude,all in all,in other words，the conclusion that ... ,in summary,it is wiser ..,in short...,certainly,undoubtedly,indeed,truly,in fact,surely,in summary,in a word,in brief,in conclusion,to conclude,in fact,indeed,in short，in other words,of course,it is true,specially,namely,in all,that is to summarize，thus as has been said,altogether in other words,finally in simpler terms,in particular,that is,on the whole,to put it shortly,therefore，as a result,thus,hence,accordingly,therefore,consequently,then,that is to say,so等。

2）重复关键词

重复指的是在段落写作中为了对前面语句中的某一主题进行进一步的展开，或做一个充分的完整的支持，而对该主题进行重复，这样，使得后面的语句为前面语句中的未尽主题或次主题建立一个有效的联系，达到连贯的目的。

语例：

（1）Teachingis supposed to be a professional activity requiring long and complicated training as well as official certification. The act of teachingis looked upon as a flow of knowledge from a higer source to an empty container.

（2）One valueof American culture that I do not accept is the value of materialism.In general,Americanstend to value and collect more material objects than most people in other parts of the world would ever think of owning.The typical modern American owns one or more television sets,cars,stereo systems,computers,and/or telephones. Much time and energy is spent on maintaining and protecting these things.In addition to maintaining and protecting their possessions,Americans often give higher priority to obtaining more things than they do to investing time in interpersonal relationships.This valueseems to result in producing regret in Americans when they reach the end of their lives.Many times people look back at their lives and realize that the things they have accumulated are not nearly as important as the relationships they should have nurtured.

（3）Hypnosisrefers to a complex phenomenon that cannot even be described in a few words and that is still harder to define. Hypnosisis usedby medical men to study their patients’s problems and to relieve symptoms such as pain. It is also usedimproperly and and with great risk by quacks who allege,for example,that they can enhance the performance of an athlete or cure otherwise hopeless diseases. Still another use or rather abuse of hyponosis is by enterprisers. A stage magitian,for example,…

关键词重复是写作者常常借以保持文本连贯的手段。文本的关键词就好似一个链条上的连接点，起着将多个部分连接在一起的作用。有时候，写作者为了重复或多次深入探讨或展开同一主题，这时，作为主题的关键词会被多次重复使用。

3）使用人称代词与指示代词

使用人称代词与指示代词，其作用与上述的重复连贯方法相同，目的是为了对前面提及的人或物，或某一概念进行进一步的完整交代，从而达到前后语句间的连贯或关联。

语例：

（1）Winston Churchill is probably still the best-known Prime Minister of Great Britain. Born at Blenheim Palace,he joined the army after Harrow,but in1899 resigned hiscommission to report on the Boer War. Elected to Parliament in 1900,he served in both Conservative and Liberal governments,and became Channellor of the Exchequer under Baldwin. A period in the political wilderness was ended by the declaration of the Second World War and his appointment to the Admiralty; after Chamberlain’s resignation in 1940 he led a coalition government. Heworked…Helost the election…Hislast years saw a return to writing,including his memoirs of the Second World War.

（2）Hypnosis refers to a complex phenomenon that cannot even be described in a few words and thatis still harder to define. Hypnosis is used by medical men to study their patients’s problems and to relieve symptoms such as pain. It is also used improperly and with great risk by quacks who allege,for example,that theycan enhance the performance of an athlete or cure otherwise hopeless diseases. Still anotheruse or rather abuse of hyponosis is by enterprisers. A stage magitian,for example,…

4）英语定冠词及替代词

英语定冠词是另一重要的形式连贯手段。实际上，英语定冠词不仅起形式连贯的作用，还在相当程度上起着语义（思想内容）上的连贯作用。

语例：

“Tristram Shandy” is Laurence Sterne’s masterpiece. It is a strange,plotless novel. By the time theauthor comes to thefourth volume,thehero has barely covered a single day of his life. He is breeched in volume 6,and then totally disappears. Sterne’s humour sometimes takes the form of indecent innuendoes,e.g. in thefirst few chapters,thehero tells “when” and how he was begotten by his parents. However,a delightful group of characters are drawn with amazing liveliness,notably Tristram’s irritable but kind-hearted father; “my Uncle Toby”,who loves to expound military tactics on paper but will not kill a fly; theparson Yorick,a representation of the author himself; Corporal Trim,Toby’s servany,and thewidow Wadman.

替代词分为名词性替代词、动词性替代词和分句性替代词。名词性替代词，如one/ones,the same,the kind,the sort等；动词性替代词， 如do,do so等；分句性替代词就是采用分句形式的so/not替代整个分句。

语例：

（1）Many young kids are facinated with pop stars. Ketty says that she she has no interest in that kind of people.(名词性替代词)

（2）The teacher assigned the students to collect waste things on their way back to home and take to the school the next day. So did everyone of the class.（动词性替代词）

（3）

（4）All the people think that Antonia,the Italian chess player will win the previous Russian champion. John thinks not. （分句性替代词）

5）同义词、近义词、反义词以及语义相对的词

在文本连贯上，同义词、近义词、反义词以及语义相对的词也能很好地起到连贯的作用。

在连贯或衔接上，可以采用不同程度的同义词或近义词。

语例:

I took leave,and turned to the ascent of the peak.

（1）The ascension was perfectly easy.（同义词）

（2）The climb was perfectly easy.（近义词）

（3）The task was perfectly easy.（一般意义的词）

（4）The thing was perfectly easy.（更一般意义的词）

运用语义相对的词和反义词进行连贯：

（1）Everyone thinks his idea is stupid. Nobody thinks it clever.

（2）It is usually very hard for a person to have many friends. And in the modern society,where materialization,commercialization and competition prevail,one often has to confront a large swarm of unfriendly fellows,hostilities,or even enemies.

6）平行结构的连贯手段

平行结构主要是作为一种语法手段来保持语句间的连贯。平行结构的使用使得语句间或整个段落看起来成为一个统一的整体。

语例：

（1）And so,my fellow Americans,ask not what you country can do for you; ask what you can do for the country. My fellow citizens of the world,ask not what America will do for you,but what together we can do for the freedom of man.

（2）We did not seek this war on terror,but this is the world as we find it. We must keep our focus. We must do our duty. History is moving,and it will tend toward hope,or tend toward tragedy. Our terrorist enemies have a vision that guides and explains all their varied acts of murder. They seekto impose Taliban-like rule,country by country,across the greater Middle East. They seekthe total control of every person,and mind,and soul,a harsh society in which women are voiceless and brutalized. They seekbases of operation to train more killers and export more violence. They commit dramatic acts of murder to shock,frighten and demoralize civilized nations,hoping we will retreat from the world and give them free rein. They seekweapons of mass destruction,to impose their will through blackmail and catastrophic attacks. None of this is the expression of a religion. It is a totalitarian political ideology,pursued with consuming zeal,and without conscience.

上述几种结构（形式）方法都是人们在写作中常用的有效的连贯方法。形式连贯对文本写作具有十分重要的作用，在一般的作文写作中，连贯词汇和术语常常占整个文本词数的10%～20%。

实际上，写作形式上的连贯就好似一个有形的链条，将一个段落中的各个语句有机地维系在一起。从而使段落的行文流畅，而又不失逻辑严密。可以看出，段落的语义连贯与形式连贯是一个不可割裂的整体。具备良好连贯的段落，每一个语句的出现都让人觉得不是偶然和多余，相反，一旦链条上的某一环节上的语句丢失，就会让人感觉某种缺失和不足。

段落连贯图示语例：

（1）One value of American culture that I do not accept is the value of materialism.In general,Americanstend to value and collect more material objectsthan most people in other parts of the world would ever think of owning.The typical modern American owns one or more television sets,cars,stereo systems,computers,and/or telephones.Much time and energy is spent on maintaining and protecting these things.In addition to maintainingand protecting their possessions,Americansoften give higher priority to obtaining more things than they do to investing time in interpersonal relationships.This valueseems to result in producing regret in Americans when they reach the end of their lives. Many times people look back at their livesand realize that the things they have accumulated are not nearly as important as the relationships they should have nurtured.

语例：

（2）Kidnappers are rarely interested in animals,butthey recently took considerable interest in Mrs Eleanor Ramsay’s cat. Mrs Eleanor Ramsay,a very wealthy old lady,has shared a flat with her cat,Rastus,for a great many years. Rastusleads an orderly life. He usually takes a short walk in the eveningsand is always home by seven o’clock. One evening,however,he failed to arrive. Mrs Ramsaygot very worried. Shelooked everywhere for himbut could not find him.

（三）句式多样化

句式多样化是英语语句的写作标准，同样也是英语段落的写作标准，因此，段落语句的多样化可以参照语句写作的句式多样化。