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行政补偿概述

时间:2023-05-24 百科知识 版权反馈
【摘要】:第一节 行政补偿概述一、行政补偿的概念与特征在世界范围内,就历史渊远而言,国家补偿行为存在的历史渊远流长。该观点认为,行政补偿是因为行政主体的合法行政行为造成相对人合法权益的损害,依法由行政主体对相对人所遭受损害予以弥补的责任。

第一节 行政补偿概述

一、行政补偿的概念与特征

在世界范围内,就历史渊远而言,国家补偿行为存在的历史渊远流长。早在法国大革命时期,国家征用个人的土地等财产,法国就开始支付补偿金了。这一思想后来为《人权宣言》所肯定:“财产是神圣不可侵犯的权利,除非当合法的条件下,任何人的财产不得受剥夺。”1804年的《法国民法典》第545条重申了《人权宣言》的这一精神:“任何人不得被强制出让其所有权。但因公用,且受公正并事前补偿时不在此限。”在德国,1794年《普鲁士一般邦法》序章第74条、第75条规定,“国家成员之个别权利及利益与公共福祉相矛盾时,国家成员之个别权利及利益应予让步”,“对于因公共福祉而牺牲权利及利益之人,国家应予补偿。”(1)但是,作为一项完整的法律制度,行政补偿制度却是国家赔偿制度发展的结果,因而在历史上的一个较长时期里存在的情形是:将国家补偿作为国家赔偿的一部分混合运用。直到20世纪以来,各国才逐渐倾向于将两者分离别立,即在国家赔偿之外单独确立有关行政补偿的概念、理论依据、基本原则、责任性质等,并专门立法,于是行政补偿制度也就应运而生了。

对于行政补偿的概念,各国认识各有不同。总体说来,大陆法系国家的行政补偿制度较为完善,概念也较为丰富。在法国,行政补偿包括公用征收补偿和公用征调补偿两种,前者是指行政主体为了公共利益目的以法定的强制方式取得私人不动产的所有权或其他物权时所给予的事先公平的补偿,其标的仅限于不动产;后者是指行政机关为了公共利益,在公用征收外,依照法定程序强制取得财产权和劳务时而给予的补偿,其适用的范围除了不动产外,还可为动产或劳务。但它对不动产只能取得使用权,不能取得所有权。对于动产,则可以取得所有权或使用权。在德国,行政补偿则细分为征收补偿、准征收补偿、特别负担补偿和征收性侵害补偿等。征收补偿是指国家基于公共利益的需要,对权利人的财产或具有财产价值的权利所为的部分或全部之剥夺而给予的补偿;准征收补偿又称为类似征收之补偿,指国家“违法无责”的行为一旦在实际效果上对当事人构成特别牺牲时而进行的补偿;特别负担补偿是指国家对权利人的财产权的限制违反了平等原则或比例原则时而给予的补偿;征收性侵害补偿指财产权受合法行政行为附随效果的侵害达到征收程度时而为的补偿。在日本,行政补偿称为损失补偿,“是指对因合法的公权力的行使而蒙受的财产上的特别牺牲,从全体公平负担的角度予以调节的财产性补偿。”我国行政法学者对行政补偿的内涵也有较多阐述。虽然学者们对于行政补偿的内涵的表述有差异,但并无大的分歧,即都认为行政补偿制度产生的前提是基于社会公益,是合法行使公权力造成相对人特别损害而引起的。学者们对导致行政补偿的原因行为虽然都肯定为合法行为,但对该合法行为的主体认识颇不一致。有学者将其局限于行政机关及其工作人员,有的则泛指国家机关和国家机关的工作人员,甚至还包括公共团体。由此也引发了学者在概念用语上的差异:前者通常用“行政补偿”来指称,后者一般用“国家补偿”来表示。

我们认为,行政补偿是指行政主体的合法行政行为给行政相对人的合法权益造成损失,依法由行政主体对相对人所受的损失予以补偿的制度。它具有以下特征:

1.行政补偿以合法的行政行为为前提。违法的行政行为不产生补偿问题,只产生行政赔偿责任。并且,行政机关这种行为的目的必须是为了公益。如果行政机关为了营利或者其他目的,即使行为从表面上看是合法的,但实质上仍然是违法的行为。

2.行政补偿的主体是国家,而补偿义务机关是国家行政机关或其他行政主体,任何个人均不负有以自己的名义和财产给付行政补偿的义务,且不发生行政追偿问题。

3.行政补偿的对象是特定的公民、法人或组织所遭受的特别损失。补偿对象的特定性是行政补偿得以成立的一个要件。社会成员对国家和社会负有平等责任,如果社会成员的合法权益因国家的合法行为平等地受到损失,如依法向国家纳税、依法服兵役,则不存在行政补偿的问题,只有当个别和少数公民、组织,即特定的公民、组织因国家合法行为受到额外损失或特别损失,而其他社会成员却因此获益时,才有行政补偿的必要。

4.行政补偿必须以损失的发生与合法的行政行为之间具有因果关系为要件。如果某一合法的行政行为与某种权益损失之间毫无因果关系,则不能构成行政补偿。

5.行政补偿的方式多种多样,除经济补偿外,还可以是生产、生活和就业方面的优待或优惠。

6.行政补偿的原则是“正当补偿”,即按照公平合理的原则,补偿的范围一般由法律加以规定。

7.行政补偿既可能发生在损失产生之前,也可能发生在损失产生之后,依照法律规定或依当事人双方的约定预先进行。

8.行政补偿的依据具有多样性,除法律、法规外,也可以是政策,行政赔偿则必须严格依照法律进行。

9.行政补偿以个人、组织所受的直接损失为限,合法权益受损的个人、组织不得根据其受损权益大小或国家、社会因之避免损失或获益大小提出超出其现实损失之外的补偿要求。

10.行政补偿费与行政赔偿经费不同。行政赔偿经费单独列入国家预算,并且由国家财政机关实行集中管理。而行政补偿费一般不单独在国家财政中列支,也不实行集中管理,而由具体行政补偿义务机关分散管理。

二、行政补偿的性质

我国行政法学界对行政补偿的性质看法不一,代表性的观点主要有以下几种:1.行政责任说。该观点认为,行政补偿是因为行政主体的合法行政行为造成相对人合法权益的损害,依法由行政主体对相对人所遭受损害予以弥补的责任。2.特殊行政责任说。该说认为行政补偿是一种特殊的行政责任,其特殊性表现在以下几个方面:一是该责任不以违法为构成要件,行政机关对其合法行为给相对人造成的损害依法负损害补偿责任;二是该责任不以过错为构成要件,行政机关对其无过错行为造成相对人损害依法负“无过错责任”;三是该责任不以因果关系为构成要件(并非否认因果关系的存在,只是强调在进行补偿时不深究因果关系),对于法律规定的情形,行政机关对损害负“结果责任”;四是该责任不以行政机关及其公务员的侵权行为为构成要件,行政机关对特定相对人因公共设施或为社会公共事业而蒙受的损害要依法负“公平责任”。3.法律责任说。此观点认为行政补偿是国家行使公权力非过失责任中的中断“社会义务面前平等原则”的责任。4.行政行为说。该说认为行政补偿是法律为行政主体设定的一种义务,因而行政补偿是基于行政主体的一种“积极义务”而实施的补救性行政行为。5.法定义务说。认为行政补偿是对行政主体为实现公共利益而实施的一切行为所赋课的一种现代国家的法定义务。

我们认为,从严格意义上讲,行政补偿不属于行政责任,而是基于“积极义务”而实施的补救性行为。因为,行政责任是违法、不当的行政行为引起的法律后果,而行政补偿却以合法行政行为为前提,是由于行政主体的合法行为造成的相对人权益损失或者因相对人为社会公共利益而受到的损失所给予的补偿,它并不以行政违法或过错为条件。对于相对人因社会公益而受到的损失给予行政补偿的,并不以侵害行为与损害结果之间存在因果关系为补偿的要件。由此可见,行政补偿的要件与行政责任应具备的违法、过错、侵权损害、因果关系等构成要件存在明显的不同。因此,我们认为,行政补偿是一种具体行政行为,将其归入到行政行为的范畴更为合理。

行政补偿与行政赔偿都是行政主体对相对人损失、损害给予的救济,但二者具有明显的不同:1.前提不同。行政补偿是因合法的行政行为或相对人为社会公益而受到损失的补偿,其前提具有合法性、正当性;而行政赔偿是因行政违法或不当,使相对人受到损害所给予的赔偿,其前提具有违法性。2.目的不同。行政补偿主要是为了保障相对人的合法财产权而对相对人损失予以合理补偿;而行政赔偿则主要是为了对行政违法侵权行为进行惩戒。3.性质不同。行政补偿是交换性的、替代性的,通过合法行政行为来实现,属于行政义务的范畴;而行政赔偿则是惩罚性的,基于违法行政行为这一前提,属于违法责任的范畴。

三、行政补偿的原则

目前我国各单行法律、法规和规章对补偿原则的规定各不相同。我国行政法学界目前对于行政补偿的基本原则也还没有形成共识,主要有以下几种观点:公平合理、妥善安置、扶持发展的原则;补偿直接损失原则;补偿物质损失原则;及时补偿原则等。借鉴国外行政补偿原则的规定,结合我国的立法现状及理论界对行政补偿原则的研究,我们认为,我国行政补偿的基本原则可以确定为人权保障、利益平衡(公平负担)、依法补偿这三个原则。

1.人权保障原则。根据宪政法治理论,国家公权力与公民权是手段与目的之关系,国家公权力存在的目的就是护卫和保证国民的各种自由与权利。我国宪法第33条规定:“国家尊重和保障人权。”行政补偿制度必须服从人权保障原则,以人为本,建立科学、合理、充满人性化的补偿保障机制,以充分保障公民的合法权利。

2.利益平衡(公平负担)原则。在行政领域社会公共利益具有优先性。如果社会公共利益和个人利益发生矛盾,个人利益要服从于社会公共利益,但这并不意味着发展社会经济文化事业一定要牺牲公民的个人权利,以损害公民的合法权利为代价。国家发展的根本任务是大力发展社会生产力,提高综合国力和人民的生活水平,每一个公民都应从中受益。行政法也注重对公民个人合法权益的保护,注重社会公共利益和个人利益的协调发展。行政主体作为社会公共利益的代表者,在依法行政过程中其某些行为可能会造成公民的人身损害,对这些因管理社会公共事务而导致的损害,由受害人自己承担是不公平的,代表社会公共利益的国家要对此承担补偿责任,这样一方面可以使受害人尽快地恢复身体健康,维持正常的生活;另一方面可以督促行政主体更加谨慎地行使自己手中的权力,一旦对公民造成人身损害,要将其控制在最低程度,避免给受害人造成更大的痛苦。由于国家承担行政补偿责任的行为多属于合法行为或无过错行为,对社会多数公众来说,这些作为非但不会给公众造成损害,反而有益于社会公众。利益平衡原则相对圆满地解决了国家补偿责任的本质属性问题,不但适于解释合法行为的行政补偿,而且也适于解释其他危险行为及特别损害行为的行政补偿。此外,合法权益受平等保护的宪法规定,要求为获得公共利益的投入由受益者公平负担,从而体现了公共利益与个别利益的调和,调和的机制就是行政补偿制度。利益平衡(公平负担)原则正是行政补偿制度对宪法上平等原则的具体落实。

3.依法补偿原则。合法性原则是行政法的基本原则,行政补偿制度也应服从这一原则。国务院制定的《全面推进依法行政实施纲要》中明确提出了依法行政的基本要求。我国应在法治政府的框架内,建立健全行政补偿制度,加强法制的统一性。同时,应该严格依照法律规定的主体、对象、条件、程序、监督与救济等来进行行政补偿,切实做到依法行政。

四、行政补偿的种类

依照不同的标准,可以对行政补偿予以不同的分类,研究这些不同类型的行政补偿有助于我们加深对行政补偿特点的了解和认识。

(一)行政行为致损的补偿与相对人因公益而受损的补偿

这是以行政补偿发生的原因为标准进行的分类。前者包括对行政征用的补偿,对紧急行政行为致损的补偿等;后者包括协助公务受损的补偿,为社会公益受损的补偿,以及从事高度危险活动致损的补偿等。(2)

(二)法定补偿与裁量补偿

这是以行政补偿是否有法律、法规、规章的明确规定为标准进行的分类。法定补偿,是指行政机关以及其他行政主体依照法律、法规和规章的明确规定给予个人、组织的补偿,具体包括三种形式:一是应否补偿以及补偿的方式与数额均由法律、法规和规章作出明确规定,行政补偿义务机关没有裁量余地,只能严格依法进行;二是法律、法规或规章明确规定应予补偿,但对如何补偿未作规定,而由行政补偿义务机关自由裁量;三是法律、法规或规章明确规定应予补偿,并规定了补偿的界限和标准,但行政补偿义务机关在如何补偿方面有一定的自由裁量余地。裁量补偿,是指法律、法规和规章对合法行政行为造成的损害是否应作补偿未作规定,而由当事的行政机关或其他行政主体根据公平合理原则自由裁量作出决定。法定补偿与裁量补偿的主要区别在于法律、法规和规章是否有应予行政补偿的明确规定,而不在于行政补偿义务机关在补偿过程中是否有自由裁量因素。划分法定补偿与裁量补偿的意义在于:前者受人民法院的司法监督,后者则在人民法院司法监督的范围之外。

(三)事前补偿与事后补偿

这是以行政补偿行为发生的时间为标准进行的分类。事前补偿是在实际损失发生之前实施的补偿,包括行政补偿决定及实施行为均发生在损失产生之前,以及行政补偿决定作出在实际损失发生之前而补偿的给付行为发生在损害过程之中或损害发生之后两种形式。事后补偿是指补偿决定及补偿的给付行为均发生在实际损失产生之后的行政补偿。

(四)直接补偿与间接补偿

这是以补偿手段是否具有直接填补损害的作用为标准进行的分类。直接补偿是以金钱或实物的方式直接填补受害人所受损失的一种行政补偿,其特点是补偿效果直接、快速,补偿义务机关的给付行为一旦完成,补偿的效果即可实现,无须借助受害人的行为。而间接补偿则是通过授予某种特殊权利或利益,如给予带薪假期、额外增加计划内物资、解决农转非指标、优先安排就业等方式,间接填补受害人所受损害的一种行政赔偿,其特点是补偿义务机关不是通过积极主动的给付行为直接补偿受害人所受之损害,而是通过在其他方面给予受害人好处的方法间接补偿受害人所受的损害,并且受害人必须作出享受补偿义务机关所给予之特殊利益的行为才能实现补偿效果。

(五)有约定补偿与无约定补偿

这是以行政补偿义务机关与被补偿人之间是否有约定为标准进行的分类。所谓有约定补偿,是指行政补偿义务机关与被补偿人在损失发生之前或之后已就补偿问题达成协议的行政补偿。无约定补偿,则是指行政补偿义务机关与被补偿人之间没有补偿协议,补偿按补偿义务机关单方面的意思表示进行的行政补偿。有约定补偿具有双方性,而无约定补偿则是一种单方行为。在有约定补偿中,被补偿人一般不得对已约定的补偿数额提出异议;而在无约定补偿中,被补偿人可对行政补偿义务机关单方面给付的补偿数额提出异议。

(六)侵害人身权的补偿与侵害财产权的补偿

这是以依合法行政行为所侵害的合法权益内容为标准进行的分类。这两类补偿在救济方法上有所不同。

(七)政策性补偿与非政策性补偿

所谓政策性补偿,是指国家对因其实行公用征收、征用或其他政策所造成的特定损失的补偿;非政策性补偿,是指行政主体对其合法的具体公务行为所造成的特定损失的补偿。政策性补偿是执行事先已决定给予补偿的国家政策的必然结果,补偿对象一般具有一定的普遍性;而非政策性补偿是由行政主体的特定行为而非国家政策本身所造成的,补偿对象一般是个别的公民或组织。

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